Tooth whitening: From the established treatments to novel approaches to prevent side effects.
carbamide peroxide
hydrogen peroxide
tooth bleaching
tooth damage
tooth hypersensitivity
tooth whitening
Journal
Journal of esthetic and restorative dentistry : official publication of the American Academy of Esthetic Dentistry ... [et al.]
ISSN: 1708-8240
Titre abrégé: J Esthet Restor Dent
Pays: England
ID NLM: 101096515
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
09 2019
09 2019
Historique:
received:
20
02
2019
revised:
08
07
2019
accepted:
05
08
2019
pubmed:
27
8
2019
medline:
31
12
2019
entrez:
27
8
2019
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
The aim is to review the most important aspects about tooth whitening treatments, their side effects, and the new emerging approaches to overcome them. This review is focused on origin of tooth stains, the whitening systems and their chemistry, their side effects, and the new approaches. The search of bibliography of the period 1965-2018 has been analyzed. Tooth whitening has become one of the most requested dental treatments by the public. Tooth stains are classified according to their origin into two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. The whitening systems are generally organized into two classes: in-office and at-home products. Most of the whitening systems use hydrogen peroxide as the active oxidative agent to degrade the organic compounds that cause stains. The concentration ranges depending on the treatment, and it may be applied directly or produced in a chemical reaction from carbamide peroxide that is more stable. Besides its popularity, tooth whitening still has some side effects being tooth hypersensitivity the most common. In order to decrease these side effects, new treatments are constantly in renewal processes. Despite all the data and new strategies known about tooth whitening, there are many aspects that are not totally fully understood and methodologies that are not completely effective. Therefore, the development of effective, efficient, and long-lasting whitening treatments is still necessary.
Substances chimiques
Drug Combinations
0
Peroxides
0
Tooth Bleaching Agents
0
Urea
8W8T17847W
Hydrogen Peroxide
BBX060AN9V
Types de publication
Journal Article
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
Review
Langues
eng
Pagination
431-440Subventions
Organisme : Agència de Gestió d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (Generalitat de Catalunya)
ID : FI-2018
Pays : International
Organisme : Spanish Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Cooperación
ID : CTM2015- 65414-C2-1-R
Pays : International
Organisme : Generalitat de Catalunya
Pays : International
Commentaires et corrections
Type : CommentIn
Informations de copyright
© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Références
Sulieman MAM. An overview of tooth-bleaching techniques: chemistry, safety and efficacy. Periodontol 2000. 2008;48:148-169.
Asbell MB. A brief history of orthodontics. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1990;98:176-183.
Alqahtani MQ. Tooth-bleaching procedures and their controversial effects: a literature review. Saudi Dent J. 2014;26:33-46.
Haywood VB. History, safety, and effectiveness of current bleaching techniques and applications of the nightguard vital bleaching technique. Quintessence Int. 1992;23:471-488.
Harlan AW. The removal of stains from the teeth caused by the administration of medical agents and the bleaching of pulpless teeth. JAMA. 1885;4:123-125.
Plotino G, Buono L, Grande NM, Pameijer CH, Somma F. Nonvital tooth bleaching: a review of the literature and clinical procedures. J Endod. 2008;34:394-407.
Joshi SB. An overview of vital teeth bleaching. J Interdiscip Dent. 2016;6:3-13.
Cohen S, Chase C. Human pulpal response to bleaching procedures on vital teeth. J Endod. 1979;5:134-138.
Stewart GG. Bleaching discolored Pulpless teeth. J Am Dent Assoc. 1965;70:325-328.
Zimmerli B, Jeger F, Lussi A. Bleaching of nonvital teeth. Schweiz Monatsschr Zahnmed. 2010;120:306-320.
Attin T, Paque F, Ajam F, Lennon AM. Review of the current status of tooth whitening with the walking bleach technique. Int Endod J. 2003;36:313-329.
Macey-Dare LV, Williams B. Bleaching of a discoloured non-vital tooth: use of a sodium perborate/water paste as the bleaching agent. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2009;7:35-38.
Waite RM, Carnes DL, Walker WA. Microleakage of TERM used with sodium perborate/water and sodium perborate/superoxol in the “walking bleach” technique. J Endod. 1998;24:648-650.
Demarco FF, Meireles SS, Masotti AS. Over-the-counter whitening agents: a concise review. Braz Oral Res. 2009;23:64-70.
Tredwin CJ, Naik S, Lewis NJ, Scully C. Hydrogen peroxide tooth-whitening (bleaching) products: review of adverse effects and safety issues. Br Dent J. 2006;200:371-376.
Pintado-Palomino K, Peitl Filho O, Zanotto ED, Tirapelli C. A clinical, randomized, controlled study on the use of desensitizing agents during tooth bleaching. J Dent. 2015;43:1099-1105.
Vaez SC, Faria-e-Silva AL, Loguércio AD, et al. Preemptive use of etodolac on tooth sensitivity after in-office bleaching: a randomized clinical trial. J Appl Oral Sci. 2018;26:1-9.
Watts A, Addy M. Tooth discolouration and staining: tooth discolouration and staining: a review of the literature. Br Dent J. 2001;190:309-316.
Addy M, Moran J. Mechanisms of stain formation on teeth, in particular associated with metal ions and antiseptics. Adv Dent Res. 1995;9:450-456.
Ten Bosch JJ, Coops JC. Tooth color and reflectance as related to light scattering and enamel hardness. J Dent Res. 1995;74:374-380.
Sulieman M. An overview of tooth discoloration: extrinsic, intrinsic and internalized stains. Dent Update. 2005;32:463-471.
Manuel ST, Abhishek P, Kundabala M. Etiology of tooth discoloration-a review. Nig Dent J. 2010;18:56-63.
Watanabe K, Shibata T, Kurosawa T, et al. Bilirubin pigmentation of human teeth caused by hyperbilirubinemia. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;28:128-130.
Sanchez AR, Rogers RS, Sheridan PJ. Tetracycline and other tetracycline-derivative staining of the teeth and oral cavity. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43:709-715.
Witkop CJ. Amelogenesis imperfecta, dentinogenesis imperfecta and dentin dysplasia revisited: problems in classification. J Oral Pathol Med. 1988;17:547-553.
Da Costa-Silva CM, Ambrosano GMB, Jeremias F, et al. Increase in severity of molar-incisor hypomineralization and its relationship with the colour of enamel opacity: a prospective cohort study. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2011;21:333-341.
Joiner A, Jones NM, Raven SJ. Investigation of factors influencing stain formation utilizing an in situ model. Adv Dent Res. 1995;9:471-476.
Thickett E, Cobourne MT. New developments in tooth whitening. The current status of external bleaching in orthodontics. J Orthod. 2009;36:194-201.
Proctor GB, Pramanik R, Carpenter GH, Rees GD. Salivary proteins interact with dietary constituents to modulate tooth staining. J Dent Res. 2005;84:73-78.
Nordbås H. Discoloration of dental pellicle by tannic acid. Acta Odontol Scand. 1977;35:305-310.
Christen AG. The impact of tobacco use and cessation on oral and dental diseases and conditions. Am J Med. 1992;93:25-31.
Hattab FN, Qudeimat MA, Al-Rimawi HS. Dental discoloration: An overview. J Esthet Restor Dent. 1999;11:291-310.
Prathap S, Rajesh H, Boloor VA, Rao AS. Extrinsic stains and management: a new insight. J Acad Indus Res. 2013;1:435-442.
Kumar S, Patel S, Tadakamadla J, Tibdewal H, Duraiswamy P, Kulkarni S. Effectiveness of a mouthrinse containing active ingredients in addition to chlorhexidine and triclosan compared with chlorhexidine and triclosan rinses on plaque, gingivitis, supragingival calculus and extrinsic staining. Int J Dent Hyg. 2013;11:35-40.
Rawlinson A, Pollington S, Walsh TF, et al. Efficacy of two alcohol-free cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwashes-a randomized double-blind crossover study. J Clin Periodontol. 2008;35:230-235.
Li Y, Zhang Q, Zhang F, Liu R, Liu H, Chen F. Analysis of the microbiota of black stain in the primary dentition. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0137030.
Zyła T, Kawala B, Antoszewska-Smith J, Kawala M. Black stain and dental caries: a review of the literature. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:1-6.
Kidd EA, Joyston-Bechal S, Smith MM. Staining of residual caries under freshly-packed amalgam restorations exposed to tea/chlorhexidine in vitro. Int Dent J. 1990;40:219-224.
Wei SHY, Ingram MJ. Analyses of the amalgam-tooth Interface using the electron microprobe. J Dent Res. 1969;48:317-320.
Boksman L, Jordan RE. Conservative treatment of the stained dentition: vital bleaching. Aust Dent J. 1983;28:67-72.
Strassler HE. Vital tooth bleaching: an update. Cont Ed Insert. 2006;4:1-8.
Heymann HO. Tooth whitening: facts and fallacies. Br Dent J. 2005;198:514.
Cavalli V, Arrais CAG, Giannini M, Ambrosano GMB. High-concentrated carbamide peroxide bleaching agents effects on enamel surface. J Oral Rehabil. 2004;31:155-159.
Matis BA, Cochran MA, Franco M, al-Ammar W, Eckert GJ, Stropes M. Eight in-office tooth whitening systems evaluated in vivo : a pilot study. Oper Dent. 2007;32:322-327.
Powell LV, Bales DJ. Tooth bleaching: its effect on oral tissues. J Am Dent Assoc. 1991;122:50-54.
da Costa JB, McPharlin R, Paravina RD, Ferracane JL. Comparison of at-home and in-office tooth whitening using a novel shade guide. Oper Dent. 2010;35:381-388.
Ontiveros JC, Paravina RD. Color change of vital teeth exposed to bleaching performed with and without supplementary light. J Dent. 2009;37:840-847.
Bruzell EM, Pallesen U, Thoresen NR, et al. Side effects of external tooth bleaching: a multi-centre practice-based prospective study. Br Dent J. 2013;215:1-8.
Buchalla W, Attin T. External bleaching therapy with activation by heat, light or laser-a systematic review. Dent Mater. 2007;23:586-596.
Tay LY, Kose C, Loguercio AD, Reis A. Assessing the effect of a desensitizing agent used before in-office tooth bleaching. J Am Dent Assoc. 2009;140:1245-1251.
Kossatz S, Dalanhol A, Cunha T, Loguercio A, Reis A. Effect of light activation on tooth sensitivity after in-office bleaching. Oper Dent. 2011;36:251-257.
Haywood VB. Number of in-office light-activated bleaching treatments needed to achieve patient satisfaction. Quintessence Int. 2006;37:115-120.
de Almeida LCAG, Costa CAS, Riehl H, dos Santos P, Sundfeld RH, Briso AL. Occurrence of sensitivity during at-home and in-office tooth bleaching therapies with or without use of light sources. Acta Odontol Latinoam. 2012;25:3-8.
Parreiras S, Vianna P, Kossatz S, Loguercio AD, Reis A. Effects of light activated in-office bleaching on permeability, microhardness, and mineral content of enamel. Oper Dent. 2014;39:E225-E230.
Adıguzel M, Kamalak H, Tekin MG. Vital bleaching. Int J Heal Sci Res. 2014;4:333-336.
Haywood VB. Nightguard vital bleaching: current concepts and research. J Am Dent Assoc. 1997;128:19S-25S.
Kihn PW. Vital tooth whitening. Dent Clin N Am. 2007;51:319-331.
Mokhlis GR, Matis BA, Cochran MA, Eckert GJ. A clinical evaluation of carbamide peroxide whitening agents during daytime use. J Am Dent Assoc. 2000;131:1269-1277.
Matis BA, Cochran MA, Eckert G. Review of the effectiveness of various tooth whitening systems. Oper Dent. 2009;34:230-235.
Meireles SS, Heckmann SS, Leida FL, Santos IS, Bona ÁD, Demarco FF. Efficacy and safety of 10% and 16% carbamide peroxide tooth-whitening gels: a randomized clinical trial. Oper Dent. 2008;33:606-612.
Auschill T, Hellwig E, Schmidale S, Sculean A, Arweiler NB. Efficacy, side-effects and patients’ acceptance of different bleaching techniques. Oper Dent. 2005;30:156-163.
Howard WR. Patient-applied tooth whiteners. J Am Dent Assoc. 1992;123:57-60.
Leonard RH, Sharma A, Haywood VB. Use of different concentrations of carbamide peroxide for bleaching teeth: an in vitro study. Quintessence Int. 1998;29:503-507.
Matis BA, Mousa HN, Cochran MA, Eckert GJ. Clinical evaluation of bleaching agents of different concentrations. Quintessence Int. 2000;31:303-310.
Matis BA, Gaiao U, Blackman D, et al. In vivo degradation of bleaching gel used in whitening teeth. J Am Dent Assoc. 1999;130:227-235.
Okte Z, Villalta P, García-Godoy F, Lu H, Powers JM. Surface hardness of resin composites after staining and bleaching. Oper Dent. 2006;31:623-628.
Karadas M, Duymus ZY. In vitro evaluation of the efficacy of different over-the-counter products on tooth whitening. Braz Dent J. 2015;26:373-377.
Li Y. Biological properties of peroxide-containing tooth whiteners. Food Chem Toxicol. 1996;34:887-904.
Sung EC, Chan SM, Mito R, Caputo AA. Effect of carbamide peroxide bleaching on the shear bond strength of composite to dental bonding agent enhanced enamel. J Prosthet Dent. 1999;82:595-599.
Titley KC, Torneck CD, Ruse ND, Krmec D. Adhesion of a resin composite to bleached and unbleached human enamel. J Endod. 1993;19:112-115.
Kum KY, Lim KR, Lee CY, et al. Effects of removing residual peroxide and other oxygen radicals on the shear bond strength and failure modes at resin-tooth interface after tooth bleaching. Am J Dent. 2004;17:267-270.
Kugel G, Perry RD, Hoang E, Scherer W. Effective tooth bleaching in 5 days: using a combined in-office and at-home bleaching system. Compend Contin Educ Dent. 1997;18:378-380.
Carey CM. Tooth whitening: what we now know. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2014;14:70-76.
Li Y. Stain removal and whitening by baking soda dentifrice. J Am Dent Assoc. 2017;148:S20-S26.
Grazioli G, Valente LL, Isolan CP, Pinheiro HA, Duarte CG, Münchow EA. Bleaching and enamel surface interactions resulting from the use of highly-concentrated bleaching gels. Arch Oral Biol. 2018;87:157-162.
Lee BS, Huang SH, Chiang YC, Chien YS, Mou CY, Lin CP. Development of in vitro tooth staining model and usage of catalysts to elevate the effectiveness of tooth bleaching. Dent Mater. 2008;24:57-66.
Vekaash CJV, Reddy TVK, Venkatesh KV. Effect of vital bleaching with solutions containing different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and pineapple extract as an additive on human enamel using reflectance spectrophotometer: an in vitro study. J Conserv Dent. 2017;20:337-340.
Xu Y, Zhou J, Tan J. Use of grape seed extract for improving the shear bond strength of total-etching adhesive to bleached enamel. Dent Mater J. 2018;37:325-331.
Khamverdi Z, Khadem P, Soltanian A, Azizi M. In-vitro evaluation of the effect of herbal antioxidants on shear bond strength of composite resin to bleached enamel. J Dent. 2016;13:244-251.
Galloza MO, Jordao-Basso KC, Bandeca MC, et al. Effects of the ratio between pigment and bleaching gel on the fracture resistance and dentin microhardness of endodontically treated teeth. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2017;18:1051-1055.
Su IH, Lee CF, Su YP, Wang LH. Evaluating a cobalt-tetraphenylporphyrin complex, functionalized with a reduced graphene oxide yanocomposite, for improved tooth whitening. J Esthet Restor Dent. 2016;28:321-329.
Al-Omiri MK, Al Nazeh AA, Kielbassa AM, Lynch E. Randomized controlled clinical trial on bleaching sensitivity and whitening efficacy of hydrogen peroxide versus combinations of hydrogen peroxide and ozone. Sci Rep. 2018;8:2407.
Yadav S. Bleaching effectiveness and tooth sensitivity of inoffice hydrogen peroxide containing titanium dioxide based bleaching agent: a systematic review. J. Dent Sci. 2017;5:96-101.
Alencar CM, Pedrinha VF, Araújo JLN, et al. Effect of 10% strontium chloride and 5% potassium nitrate with fluoride on bleached bovine enamel. Open Dent J. 2017;11:476-484.
Eimar H, Siciliano R, Abdallah MN, et al. Hydrogen peroxide whitens teeth by oxidizing the organic structure. J Dent. 2012;40:e25-e33.
Dahl JE, Pallesen U. Tooth bleaching--a critical review of the biological aspects. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2003;14:292-304.
Joiner A. The bleaching of teeth: a review of the literature. J Dent. 2006;34:412-419.
Hannig C, Zech R, Henze E, Dorr-Tolui R, Attin T. Determination of peroxides in saliva-kinetics of peroxide release into saliva during home-bleaching with Whitestrips® and Vivastyle®. Arch Oral Biol. 2003;48:559-566.
Abdollahi M, Hosseini A. Encyclopedia of Toxicology. 3rd ed. Wexler: Academic Press; 2014.
Kwon SR, Wertz PW. Review of the mechanism of tooth whitening. J Esthet Restor Dent. 2015;27:240-257.
Naik S, Tredwin CJ, Scully C. Hydrogen peroxide tooth-whitening (bleaching): review of safety in relation to possible carcinogenesis. Oral Oncol. 2006;42:668-674.
Perdigão J. Dental whitening-revisiting the myths. Northwest Dent. 2010;89:19-21. 23-6.
Aschheim KW. Bleaching and related agents. Bleaching and Related Agents. 3rd ed. New York: CV Mosby; 2015.
Goldstein R, Garber D. Complete Dental Bleaching. 1st ed. Chicago: Quintessence Publishing; 1995.
Wood SM. Organic chemistry. J Chem Educ. 1989;66:A104.
Kashima-Tanaka M, Tsujimoto Y, Kawamoto K, et al. Generation of free radicals and/or active oxygen by light or laser irradiation of hydrogen peroxide or sodium hypochlorite. J Endod. 2003;29:141-143.
Goldberg M, Grootveld M, Lynch E. Undesirable and adverse effects of tooth-whitening products: a review. Clin Oral Investig. 2010;14:1-10.
Chung G, Jung SJ, Oh SB. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of dental nociception. J Dent Res. 2013;92:948-955.
Dababneh RH, Khouri AT, Addy M. Dentine hypersensitivity-an enigma? A review of terminology, mechanisms, aetiology and management. Br Dent J. 1999;187:606-611.
Amengual J, Forner L. Dentine hypersensitivity in dental bleaching: case report. Minerva Stomatol. 2009;58:181-185.
Haywood VB. Dentine hypersensitivity: bleaching and restorative considerations for successful management. Int Dent J. 2002;52:376-384.
Leonard RH, Haywood VB, Phillips C. Risk factors for developing tooth sensitivity and gingival irritation associated with nightguard vital bleaching. Quintessence Int. 1997;28:527-534.
Sue Seale N, McIntosh JE, Taylor AN. Pulpal reaction to bleaching of teeth in dogs. J Dent Res. 1981;60:948-953.
Anderson DG, Chiego DJ, Glickman GN, McCauley LK. A clinical assessment of the effects of 10% carbamide peroxide gel on human pulp tissue. J Endod. 1999;25:247-250.
Rotstein I, Torek Y, Misgav R. Effect of cementum defects on radicular penetration of 30% H2O2 during intracoronal bleaching. J Endod. 1991;17:230-233.
Nilsson E, Bonte E, Bayet F, Lasfargues J. Management of Internal Root Resorption on permanent teeth Management of Internal Root Resorption on permanent teeth. Int J Dent. 2013;2014:1-7.
Fuss Z, Tsesis I, Lin S. Root resorption - diagnosis, classification and treatment choices based on stimulation factors. Dent Traumatol. 2003;19:175-182.
Loguercio AD, Servat F, Stanislawczuk R, et al. Effect of acidity of in-office bleaching gels on tooth sensitivity and whitening: a two-center double-blind randomized clinical trial. Clin Oral Investig. 2017;21:2811-2818.
Llena C, Esteve I, Forner L. Effect of hydrogen and carbamide peroxide in bleaching, enamel morphology, and mineral composition: in vitro study. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2017;18:576-582.
Quirynen M, Bollen CM. The influence of surface roughness and surface-free energy on supra- and subgingival plaque formation in man. A review of the literature. J Clin Periodontol. 1995;22:1-14.
García-Godoy F, Hicks MJ. Maintaining the integrity of the enamel surface: the role of dental biofilm, saliva and preventive agents in enamel demineralization and remineralization. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139:25S-34S.
Sarrett DC. Tooth whitening today. J Am Dent Assoc. 2002;133:1535-1538.
Attin T, Hannig C, Wiegand A, Attin R. Effect of bleaching on restorative materials and restorations-a systematic review. Dent Mater. 2004;20:852-861.
Li Y. Tooth bleaching using peroxide-containing agents: current status of safety issues. Compend Contin Educ Dent. 1998;19:783-786.
Minoux M, Serfaty R. Vital tooth bleaching: biologic adverse effects-a review. Quintessence Int. 2008;39:645-659.
Gimeno P, Bousquet C, Lassu N, et al. High-performance liquid chromatography method for the determination of hydrogen peroxide present or released in teeth bleaching kits and hair cosmetic products. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2015;107:386-393.
Burrows S. A review of the efficacy of tooth bleaching. Dent Update. 2009;36:537-551.
Julius D, Basbaum AI. Molecular mechanisms of nociception. Nature. 2001;413:203-210.
Dowell P, Addy M. Dentine hypersensitivity-a review. Aetiology, symptoms and theories of pain production. J Clin Periodontol. 1983;10:341-350.
Bartold PM. Dentinal hypersensitivity: a review. Aust Dent J. 2006;51:212-218.
Cooper PR, Smith AJ. Molecular mediators of pulp inflammation and regeneration. Endod Top. 2013;28:90-105.
Solé-Magdalena A, Martínez-Alonso M, Coronado CA, Junquera LM, Cobo J, Vega JA. Molecular basis of dental sensitivity: the odontoblasts are multisensory cells and express multifunctional ion channels. Ann Anat. 2018;215:20-29.
Thiesen CH, Rodrigues Filho R, Prates LHM, Sartori N. The influence of desensitizing dentifrices on pain induced by in-office bleaching. Braz Oral Res. 2013;27:517-523.
Markowitz K. Pretty painful: why does tooth bleaching hurt? Med Hypotheses. 2010;74:835-840.
Nilius B, Appendino G, Owsianik G. The transient receptor potential channel TRPA1: from gene to pathophysiology. Pflügers Arch - Eur J Physiol. 2012;464:425-458.
Charakorn P, Cabanilla LL, Wagner WC, et al. The effect of preoperative ibuprofen on tooth sensitivity caused by in-office bleaching. Oper Dent. 2009;34:131-135.
Modaresi J, Dianat O, Mozayeni MA. The efficacy comparison of ibuprofen, acetaminophen-codeine, and placebo premedication therapy on the depth of anesthesia during treatment of inflamed teeth. Oral Surgery, Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2006;102:399-403.
Merry AF, Gibbs RD, Edwards J, et al. Combined acetaminophen and ibuprofen for pain relief after oral surgery in adults: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Anaesth. 2010;104:80-88.
Paula E, Kossatz S, Fernandes D, Loguercio A, Reis A. The effect of perioperative ibuprofen use on tooth sensitivity caused by in-office bleaching. Oper Dent. 2013;38:601-608.
Haywood VB, Caughman WF, Frazier KB, Myers ML. Tray delivery of potassium nitrate-fluoride to reduce bleaching sensitivity. Quintessence Int. 2001;32:105-109.
Giniger M, Macdonald J, Ziemba S, et al. The clinical performance of professionally dispensed bleaching gel with added amorphous calcium phosphate. J Am Dent Assoc. 2005;136:383-392.
Matis BA, Cochran MA, Eckert GJ, Matis JI. In vivo study of two carbamide peroxide gels with different desensitizing agents. Oper Dent. 2007;32:549-555.
Markowitz K, Bilotto G, Kim S. Decreasing intradental nerve activity in the cat with potassium and divalent cations. Arch Oral Biol. 1991;36:1-7.
Tam L. Effect of potassium nitrate and fluoride on carbamide peroxide bleaching. Quintessence Int. 2001;32:766-770.
Rodd HD, Boissonade FM. Substance P expression in human tooth pulp in relation to caries and pain experience. Eur J Oral Sci. 2000;108:467-474.
Bowles WR, Withrow JC, Lepinski AM, Hargreaves KM. Tissue levels of immunoreactive substance P are increased in patients with irreversible pulpitis. J Endod. 2003;29:265-267.
Sacerdote P, Levrini L. Peripheral mechanisms of dental pain: the role of substance P. Mediators Inflamm. 2012;2012:1-6.
Pertwee RG. Cannabinoid receptors and pain. Prog Neurobiol. 2001;63:569-611.
Anand P, Whiteside G, Fowler CJ, Hohmann AG. Targeting CB2 receptors and the endocannabinoid system for the treatment of pain. Brain Res Rev. 2009;60:255-266.
Beneng K, Renton T, Yilmaz Z, Yiangou Y, Anand P. Cannabinoid receptor CB1-immunoreactive nerve fibres in painful and non-painful human tooth pulp. J Clin Neurosci. 2010;17:1476-1479.
Joiner A. Whitening toothpastes: a review of the literature. J Dent. 2010;38:e17-e24.
Sulieman M, Macdonald E, Rees JS, et al. Tooth bleaching by different concentrations of carbamide peroxide and hydrogen peroxide whitening strips: an in vitro study. J Esthet Restor Dent. 2006;18:93-100.
Perchyonok VT, Grobler SR. Tooth-bleaching: mechanism, biological aspects and antioxidants. Int J Dent Oral Heal. 2015;1:1-7.