Fear of the dark? Contrasting impacts of humans versus lynx on diel activity of roe deer across Europe.
Accéléromètres
Chasse
Crépuscularité
Diurnalité
Empreinte humaine
Interaction prédateurs-proies
Nocturnalité
Répartition temporelle de l'activité
accelerometers
crepuscularity
diurnality
human footprint
hunting
nocturnality
predator-prey interaction
temporal partitioning
Journal
The Journal of animal ecology
ISSN: 1365-2656
Titre abrégé: J Anim Ecol
Pays: England
ID NLM: 0376574
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
01 2020
01 2020
Historique:
received:
08
04
2019
accepted:
01
11
2019
pubmed:
5
12
2019
medline:
14
8
2020
entrez:
5
12
2019
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Humans, as super predators, can have strong effects on wildlife behaviour, including profound modifications of diel activity patterns. Subsequent to the return of large carnivores to human-modified ecosystems, many prey species have adjusted their spatial behaviour to the contrasting landscapes of fear generated by both their natural predators and anthropogenic pressures. The effects of predation risk on temporal shifts in diel activity of prey, however, remain largely unexplored in human-dominated landscapes. We investigated the influence of the density of lynx Lynx lynx, a nocturnal predator, on the diel activity patterns of their main prey, the roe deer Capreolus capreolus, across a gradient of human disturbance and hunting at the European scale. Based on 11 million activity records from 431 individually GPS-monitored roe deer in 12 populations within the EURODEER network (http://eurodeer.org), we investigated how lynx predation risk in combination with both lethal and non-lethal human activities affected the diurnality of deer. We demonstrated marked plasticity in roe deer diel activity patterns in response to spatio-temporal variations in risk, mostly due to human activities. In particular, roe deer decreased their level of diurnality by a factor of 1.37 when the background level of general human disturbance was high. Hunting exacerbated this effect, as during the hunting season deer switched most of their activity to night-time and, to a lesser extent, to dawn, although this pattern varied noticeably in relation to lynx density. Indeed, in the presence of lynx, their main natural predator, roe deer were relatively more diurnal. Overall, our results revealed a strong influence of human activities and the presence of lynx on diel shifts in roe deer activity. In the context of the recovery of large carnivores across Europe, we provide important insights about the effects of predators on the behavioural responses of their prey in human-dominated ecosystems. Modifications in the temporal partitioning of ungulate activity as a response to human activities may facilitate human-wildlife coexistence, but likely also have knock-on effects for predator-prey interactions, with cascading effects on ecosystem functioning. Résumé Les humains, en tant que ‘super-prédateurs’, peuvent avoir des effets importants sur le comportement de la faune sauvage, y compris des modifications profondes de leurs rythmes circadiens d'activité. A la suite du retour des grands carnivores dans les écosystèmes anthropisés, de nombreuses espèces proies ont ajusté leur comportement spatial à ces paysages de la peur contrastés, générés à la fois par les pressions liées aux risques anthropiques et à la présence de leurs prédateurs naturels. Les effets du risque de prédation sur les modifications temporelles des rythmes circadiens d'activité des proies restent cependant largement inconnus dans les écosystèmes dominés par l'homme. Ici, nous avons étudié l'influence de la densité de lynx Lynx lynx, un prédateur nocturne, sur les rythmes circadiens d'activité de leur proie principale, le chevreuil Capreolus capreolus, à travers un gradient de pressions anthropiques à l’échelle Européenne. Sur la base de plus de 11 million de données d'activité issues de 431 suivis individuels de chevreuils équipés de colliers GPS provenant de 12 populations au sein du réseau EURODEER (http://eurodeer.org), nous avons analysé comment le risque de prédation par le lynx, associé aux risques létaux et non-létaux des activités humaines, influence la diurnalité des chevreuils. Nous avons démontré une forte plasticité des rythmes circadiens d'activité des chevreuils en réponse aux variations spatio-temporelles du risque, et notamment face aux activités humaines. Plus particulièrement, les chevreuils diminuent leur degré de diurnalité d'un facteur de 1.37 lorsque le dérangement humain est important. La chasse accentue cet effet, puisque durant la saison de chasse les chevreuils basculent la plupart de leur activité de nuit, et dans une moindre mesure, durant l'aube également, bien que ce patron soit essentiellement variable en fonction de la densité de lynx. En effet, en présence de lynx, leur principal prédateur, les chevreuils sont relativement plus diurnes. Globalement, nos résultats révèlent une forte influence des activités humaines et de la présence de lynx sur l'ajustement des rythmes circadiens d'activité des chevreuils. Dans le contexte du retour des grands carnivores en Europe, notre étude apporte de nouvelles connaissances sur les effets des prédateurs sur la réponse comportementale de leur proie dans des écosystèmes anthropisés. La modification de la répartition temporelle de l'activité des ongulés en réponse aux activités humaines pourrait être un facteur facilitant la coexistence homme-faune sauvage, avec toutefois des conséquences autres sur les interactions prédateurs-proies et leurs effets en cascade sur le fonctionnement des écosystèmes.
Autres résumés
Type: Publisher
(fre)
Résumé Les humains, en tant que ‘super-prédateurs’, peuvent avoir des effets importants sur le comportement de la faune sauvage, y compris des modifications profondes de leurs rythmes circadiens d'activité. A la suite du retour des grands carnivores dans les écosystèmes anthropisés, de nombreuses espèces proies ont ajusté leur comportement spatial à ces paysages de la peur contrastés, générés à la fois par les pressions liées aux risques anthropiques et à la présence de leurs prédateurs naturels. Les effets du risque de prédation sur les modifications temporelles des rythmes circadiens d'activité des proies restent cependant largement inconnus dans les écosystèmes dominés par l'homme. Ici, nous avons étudié l'influence de la densité de lynx Lynx lynx, un prédateur nocturne, sur les rythmes circadiens d'activité de leur proie principale, le chevreuil Capreolus capreolus, à travers un gradient de pressions anthropiques à l’échelle Européenne. Sur la base de plus de 11 million de données d'activité issues de 431 suivis individuels de chevreuils équipés de colliers GPS provenant de 12 populations au sein du réseau EURODEER (http://eurodeer.org), nous avons analysé comment le risque de prédation par le lynx, associé aux risques létaux et non-létaux des activités humaines, influence la diurnalité des chevreuils. Nous avons démontré une forte plasticité des rythmes circadiens d'activité des chevreuils en réponse aux variations spatio-temporelles du risque, et notamment face aux activités humaines. Plus particulièrement, les chevreuils diminuent leur degré de diurnalité d'un facteur de 1.37 lorsque le dérangement humain est important. La chasse accentue cet effet, puisque durant la saison de chasse les chevreuils basculent la plupart de leur activité de nuit, et dans une moindre mesure, durant l'aube également, bien que ce patron soit essentiellement variable en fonction de la densité de lynx. En effet, en présence de lynx, leur principal prédateur, les chevreuils sont relativement plus diurnes. Globalement, nos résultats révèlent une forte influence des activités humaines et de la présence de lynx sur l'ajustement des rythmes circadiens d'activité des chevreuils. Dans le contexte du retour des grands carnivores en Europe, notre étude apporte de nouvelles connaissances sur les effets des prédateurs sur la réponse comportementale de leur proie dans des écosystèmes anthropisés. La modification de la répartition temporelle de l'activité des ongulés en réponse aux activités humaines pourrait être un facteur facilitant la coexistence homme-faune sauvage, avec toutefois des conséquences autres sur les interactions prédateurs-proies et leurs effets en cascade sur le fonctionnement des écosystèmes.
Identifiants
pubmed: 31799691
doi: 10.1111/1365-2656.13161
doi:
Banques de données
Dryad
['10.5061/dryad.1zcrjdfnm']
Types de publication
Journal Article
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
132-145Informations de copyright
© 2019 British Ecological Society.
Références
Abbas, F., Morellet, N., Hewison, A. J. M., Merlet, J., Cargnelutti, B., Lourtet, B., … Verheyden, H. (2011). Landscape fragmentation generates spatial variation of diet composition and quality in a generalist herbivore. Oecologia, 167, 401-411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-011-1994-0
Andersen, R., Duncan, P., & Linnell, J. D. C. (Eds.). (1998). The European roe deer: the biology of success. Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press.
Andersen, R., Karlsen, J., Austmo, L. B., Odden, J., Linnell, J. D. C., & Gaillard, J.-M. (2007). Selectivity of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx and recreational hunters for age, sex and body condition in roe deer Capreolus capreolus. Wildlife Biology, 13, 467-474. https://doi.org/10.2981/0909-6396(2007)13[467:SOELLL]2.0.CO;2
Andrén, H., & Liberg, O. (2015). Large impact of Eurasian lynx predation on roe deer population dynamics. PLoS ONE, 10, e0120570. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120570
Basille, M., Herfindal, I., Santin-Janin, H., Linnell, J. D. C., Odden, J., Andersen, R., … Gaillard, J.-M. (2009). What shapes Eurasian lynx distribution in human dominated landscapes: Selecting prey or avoiding people? Ecography, 32, 683-691. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05712.x
Belotti, E., Mayer, K., Kreisinger, J., Heurich, M., & Bufka, L. (2018). Recreational activities affect resting site selection and foraging time of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Hystrix, 29, 181-189.
Belozerov, V. N. (1982). Diapause and biological rhythms in ticks. In F. D. Obenchain & R. Galun (Eds.), Physiology of ticks (pp. 469-500). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
Benhaiem, S., Delon, M., Lourtet, B., Cargnelutti, B., Aulagnier, S., Hewison, A. J. M., … Verheyden, H. (2008). Hunting increases vigilance levels in roe deer and modifies feeding site selection. Animal Behaviour, 76, 611-618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.03.012
Berger, J. (2007). Fear, human shields and the redistribution of prey and predators in protected areas. Biology Letters, 3, 620-623. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0415
Bongi, P., Ciuti, S., Grignolio, S., Del Frate, M., Simi, S., Gandelli, D., & Apollonio, M. (2008). Anti-predator behaviour, space use and habitat selection in female roe deer during the fawning season in a wolf area. Journal of Zoology, 276, 242-251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00481.x
Bonnot, N. C., Couriot, O., Berger, A., Cagnacci, F., Ciuti, S., De Groeve, J., … Hewison, A. J. M. (2019). Data from: Fear of the dark? Contrasting impacts of humans versus lynx on diel activity of roe deer across Europe. Dryad Digital Repository, https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.1zcrjdfnm
Bonnot, N. C., Goulard, M., Hewison, A. J. M., Cargnelutti, B., Lourtet, B., Chaval, Y., & Morellet, N. (2018). Boldness-mediated habitat use tactics and reproductive success in a wild large herbivore. Animal Behaviour, 145, 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.09.013
Bonnot, N. C., Hewison, A. J. M., Morellet, N., Gaillard, J.-M., Debeffe, L., Couriot, O., … Vanpé, C. (2017). Stick or twist: Roe deer adjust their flight behaviour to the perceived trade-off between risk and reward. Animal Behaviour, 124, 35-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.11.031
Bonnot, N. C., Morellet, N., Hewison, A. J. M., Martin, J.-L., Benhamou, S., & Chamaillé-Jammes, S. (2016). Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis) adjust habitat selection and activity rhythm to the absence of predators. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 94, 385-394.
Bonnot, N., Morellet, N., Verheyden, H., Cargnelutti, B., Lourtet, B., Klein, F., & Hewison, A. J. M. (2013). Habitat use under predation risk: Hunting, roads and human dwellings influence the spatial behaviour of roe deer. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 59, 185-193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-012-0665-8
Bonnot, N., Verheyden, H., Blanchard, P., Cote, J., Debeffe, L., Cargnelutti, B., … Morellet, N. (2015). Interindividual variability in habitat use: Evidence for a risk management syndrome in roe deer? Behavioral Ecology, 26, 105-114. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/aru169
Brooks, M. E., Kristensen, K., van Benthem, K. J., Magnusson, A., Berg, C. W., Nielsen, A., … Bolker, B. M. (2017). glmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. The R Journal, 9, 378-400. https://doi.org/10.32614/RJ-2017-066
Brown, D. D., Kays, R., Wikelski, M., Wilson, R., & Klimley, A. P. (2013). Observing the unwatchable through acceleration logging of animal behavior. Animal Biotelemetry, 1(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/2050-3385-1-20
Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (2002). Model selection and multimodel inference: A practical information-theoretic approach (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Chapron, G., Kaczensky, P., Linnell, J. D., von Arx, M., Huber, D., Andrén, H., … Boitani, L. (2014). Recovery of large carnivores in Europe’s modern human-dominated landscapes. Science, 346, 1517-1519. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1257553
Ciuti, S., Muhly, T. B., Paton, D. G., McDevitt, A. D., Musiani, M., & Boyce, M. S. (2012). Human selection of elk behavioural traits in a landscape of fear. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279, 4407-4416. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.1483
Ciuti, S., Northrup, J. M., Muhly, T. B., Simi, S., Musiani, M., Pitt, J. A., & Boyce, M. S. (2012). Effects of humans on behaviour of wildlife exceed those of natural predators in a landscape of fear. PLoS ONE, 7, e50611. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050611
Clinchy, M., Zanette, L. Y., Roberts, D., Suraci, J. P., Buesching, C. D., Newman, C., & Macdonald, D. W. (2016). Fear of the human “super predator” far exceeds the fear of large carnivores in a model mesocarnivore. Behavioral Ecology, 27, 1826-1832. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arw117
Côté, S. D., Rooney, T. P., Tremblay, J.-P., Dussault, C., & Waller, D. M. (2004). Ecological impacts of deer overabundance. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 35, 113-147. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105725
Creel, S., & Christianson, D. (2008). Relationships between direct predation and risk effects. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 23, 194-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2007.12.004
Cribari-Neto, F., & Zeileis, A. (2010). Beta regression in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 34(2), 1-24.
Cromsigt, J. P. G. M., Kuijper, D. P. J., Adam, M., Beschta, R. L., Churski, M., Eycott, A., … West, K. (2013). Hunting for fear: Innovating management of human-wildlife conflicts. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50, 544-549. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12076
Darimont, C. T., Fox, C. H., Bryan, H. M., & Reimchen, T. E. (2015). The unique ecology of human predators. Science, 349, 858-860. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4249
Dellinger, J. A., Shores, C. R., Craig, A., Heithaus, M. R., Ripple, W. J., & Wirsing, A. J. (2019). Habitat use of sympatric prey suggests divergent anti-predator responses to recolonizing gray wolves. Oecologia, 189, 487-500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-018-4323-z
Dirzo, R., Young, H. S., Galetti, M., Ceballos, G., Isaac, N. J. B., & Collen, B. (2014). Defaunation in the anthropocene. Science, 345, 401-406. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251817
Dröge, E., Creel, S., Becker, M. S., & M’soka, J. (2017). Risky times and risky places interact to affect prey behaviour. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 1, 1123. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0220-9
Duncan, P., Tixier, H., Hofmann, R. R., & Lechner-Doll, M. (1998). Feeding strategies and the physiology of digestion in roe deer. In R. Andersen, P. Duncan, & J. D. C. Linnell (Eds.), The European roe deer: The biology of success (pp. 91-116). Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press.
Eccard, J. A., Meißner, J. K., & Heurich, M. (2017). European roe deer increase vigilance when faced with immediate predation risk by Eurasian Lynx. Ethology, 123(1), 30-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12420
Eriksen, A., Wabakken, P., Zimmermann, B., Andreassen, H. P., Arnemo, J. M., Gundersen, H., … Storaas, T. (2011). Activity patterns of predator and prey: A simultaneous study of GPS-collared wolves and moose. Animal Behaviour, 81, 423-431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.11.011
Filla, M., Premier, J., Magg, N., Dupke, C., Khorozyan, I., Waltert, M., … Heurich, M. (2017). Habitat selection by Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is primarily driven by avoidance of human activity during day and prey availability during night. Ecology and Evolution, 7, 6367-6381.
Fortin, D., Beyer, H. L., Boyce, M. S., Smith, D. W., Duchesne, T., & Mao, J. S. (2005). Wolves influence elk movements: Behavior shapes a trophic cascade in Yellowstone National Park. Ecology, 86, 1320-1330. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-0953
Frid, A., & Dill, L. (2002). Human-caused disturbance stimuli as a form of predation risk. Conservation Ecology, 6(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00404-060111
Gaynor, K. M., Hojnowski, C. E., Carter, N. H., & Brashares, J. S. (2018). The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science, 360, 1232-1235. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar7121
Gehr, B., Hofer, E. J., Muff, S., Ryser, A., Vimercati, E., Vogt, K., & Keller, L. F. (2017). A landscape of coexistence for a large predator in a human dominated landscape. Oikos, 126, 1389-1399. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.04182
Gehr, B., Hofer, E. J., Pewsner, M., Ryser, A., Vimercati, E., Vogt, K., & Keller, L. F. (2018). Hunting-mediated predator facilitation and superadditive mortality in a European ungulate. Ecology and Evolution, 8, 109-119. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3642
Gervasi, V., Brunberg, S., & Swenson, J. (2006). An individual-based method to measure animal activity levels: A test on brown bears. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 34, 1314-1319. https://doi.org/10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[1314:AIMTMA]2.0.CO;2
Godvik, I. M. R., Loe, L. E., Vik, J. O., Veiberg, V., Langvatn, R., & Mysterud, A. (2009). Temporal scales, trade-offs, and functional responses in red deer habitat selection. Ecology, 90, 699-710. https://doi.org/10.1890/08-0576.1
Graham, M. D., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Adams, W. M., & Lee, P. C. (2009). The movement of African elephants in a human-dominated land-use mosaic. Animal Conservation, 12, 445-455. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00272.x
Heurich, M., Hilger, A., Küchenhoff, H., Andrén, H., Bufka, L., Krofel, M., … Linnell, J. D. C. (2014). Activity patterns of Eurasian lynx are modulated by light regime and individual traits over a wide latitudinal range. PLoS ONE, 9, e114143. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114143
Hofmann, R. R. (1989). Evolutionary steps of ecophysiological adaptation and diversification of ruminants: A comparative view of their digestive system. Oecologia, 78, 443-457. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00378733
Hofmeester, T. R., Jansen, P. A., Wijnen, H. J., Coipan, E. C., Fonville, M., Prins, H. H., … van Wieren, S. E. (2017). Cascading effects of predator activity on tick-borne disease risk. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 284, 20170453. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0453
Hoogenboom, I., Daan, S., Dallinga, J. H., & Schoenmakers, M. (1984). Seasonal change in the daily timing of behaviour of the common vole, Microtus arvalis. Oecologia, 61(1), 18-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00379084
Jędrzejewski, W., Schmidt, K., Theuerkauf, J., Jędrzejewska, B., Selva, N., Zub, K., & Szymura, L. (2002). Kill rates and predation by wolves on ungulate populations in Białowieża Primeval Forest (Poland). Ecology, 83, 1341-1356.
Kamler, J. F., Jędrzejewska, B., & Jędrzejewski, W. (2007). Activity patterns of red deer in Białowieża National Park, Poland. Journal of Mammalogy, 88, 508-514. https://doi.org/10.1644/06-MAMM-A-169R.1
Kays, R., Crofoot, M. C., Jetz, W., & Wikelski, M. (2015). Terrestrial animal tracking as an eye on life and planet. Science, 348, aaa2478. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa2478
Kohl, M. T., Ruth, T. K., Metz, M. C., Stahler, D. R., Smith, D. W., White, P. J., & MacNulty, D. R. (2019). Do prey select for vacant hunting domains to minimize a multi-predator threat? Ecology Letters, 22, 1724-1733. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13319
Kohl, M. T., Stahler, D. R., Metz, M. C., Forester, J. D., Kauffman, M. J., Varley, N., … MacNulty, D. R. (2018). Diel predator activity drives a dynamic landscape of fear. Ecological Monographs, 88, 638-652. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1313
Komers, P. E. (1997). Behavioural plasticity in variable environments. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 75, 161-169. https://doi.org/10.1139/z97-023
Kronfeld-Schor, N., & Dayan, T. (2003). Partitioning of time as an ecological resource. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 34, 153-181. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132435
Kronfeld-Schor, N., Dayan, T., Elvert, R., Haim, A., Zisapel, N., & Heldmaier, G. (2001). On the use of the time axis for ecological separation: Diel rhythms as an evolutionary constraint. The American Naturalist, 158, 451-457. https://doi.org/10.1086/321991
Kronfeld-Schor, N., Visser, M. E., Salis, L., & van Gils, J. A. (2017). Chronobiology of interspecific interactions in a changing world. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 372, 20160248. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0248
Krop-Benesch, A., Berger, A., Hofer, H., & Heurich, M. (2013). Long-term measurement of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (Mammalia: Cervidae) activity using two-axis accelerometers in GPS-collars. Italian Journal of Zoology, 80, 69-81.
Kröschel, M., Reineking, B., Werwie, F., Wildi, F., & Storch, I. (2017). Remote monitoring of vigilance behavior in large herbivores using acceleration data. Animal Biotelemetry, 5(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40317-017-0125-z
Kusak, J., Skrbinšek, A. M., & Huber, D. (2005). Home ranges, movements, and activity of wolves (Canis lupus) in the Dalmatian part of Dinarids. Croatia. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 51, 254-262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-005-0111-2
Laundré, J. W., Hernández, L., & Altendorf, K. B. (2001). Wolves, elk, and bison: Reestablishing the "landscape of fear" in Yellowstone National Park, USA. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 79, 1401-1409. https://doi.org/10.1139/z01-094
Lehman, C. P., Rota, C. T., Raithel, J. D., & Millspaugh, J. J. (2018). Pumas affect elk dynamics in absence of other large carnivores. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 82, 344-353. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21392
Levy, O., Dayan, T., Porter, W. P., & Kronfeld-Schor, N. (2019). Time and ecological resilience: Can diurnal animals compensate for climate change by shifting to nocturnal activity? Ecological Monographs, 89, e01334. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1334
Lima, S. L., & Dill, L. M. (1990). Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: A review and prospectus. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 68, 619-640. https://doi.org/10.1139/z90-092
Loe, L. E., Bonenfant, C., Mysterud, A., Severinsen, T., Øritsland, N. A., Langvatn, R., … Stenseth, N. C. (2007). Activity pattern of arctic reindeer in a predator-free environment: No need to keep a diel rhythm. Oecologia, 152, 617-624.
Lone, K., Loe, L. E., Gobakken, T., Linnell, J. D. C., Odden, J., Remmen, J., & Mysterud, A. (2014). Living and dying in a multi-predator landscape of fear: Roe deer are squeezed by contrasting pattern of predation risk imposed by lynx and humans. Oikos, 123, 641-651. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2013.00938.x
Lone, K., Mysterud, A., Gobakken, T., Odden, J., Linnell, J. D. C., & Loe, L. E. (2017). Temporal variation in habitat selection breaks the catch-22 of spatially contrasting predation risk from multiple predators. Oikos, 126, 624-632. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.03486
Long, E. S., Jacobsen, T. C., Nelson, B. J., & Steensma, K. M. M. (2013). Conditional diel and seasonal movement strategies of male Columbia black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus). Canadian Journal of Zoology, 91, 679-688.
Manning, A. D., Gordon, I. J., & Ripple, W. J. (2009). Restoring landscapes of fear with wolves in the Scottish Highlands. Biological Conservation, 142, 2314-2321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.05.007
Massé, A., & Côté, S. D. (2013). Spatiotemporal variations in resources affect activity and movement patterns of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) at high density. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 91, 252-263.
Mejlon, H. A. (1997). Diel activity of Ixodes ricinus Acari: Ixodidae at two locations near Stockholm, Sweden. Experimental & Applied Acarology, 21, 247-256.
Monterroso, P., Alves, P. C., & Ferreras, P. (2013). Catch me if you can: Diel activity patterns of mammalian prey and predators. Ethology, 119, 1044-1056. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12156
Murray, M. H., & St. Clair, C. C. (2015). Individual flexibility in nocturnal activity reduces risk of road mortality for an urban carnivore. Behavioral Ecology, 26, 1520-1527. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arv102
Nilsen, E. B., Gaillard, J.-M., Andersen, R., Odden, J., Delorme, D., Van Laere, G., & Linnell, J. D. C. (2009). A slow life in hell or a fast life in heaven: Demographic analyses of contrasting roe deer populations. Journal of Animal Ecology, 78, 585-594. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01523.x
Nouvellet, P., Rasmussen, G. S. A., Macdonald, D. W., & Courchamp, F. (2012). Noisy clocks and silent sunrises: Measurement methods of daily activity pattern. Journal of Zoology, 286, 179-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00864.x
Oriol-Cotterill, A., Valeix, M., Frank, L. G., Riginos, C., & Macdonald, D. W. (2015). Landscapes of coexistence for terrestrial carnivores: The ecological consequences of being downgraded from ultimate to penultimate predator by humans. Oikos, 124, 1263-1273. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.02224
Pagon, N., Grignolio, S., Pipia, A., Bongi, P., Bertolucci, C., & Apollonio, M. (2013). Seasonal variation of activity patterns in roe deer in a temperate forested area. Chronobiology International, 30, 772-785. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2013.765887
Picardi, S., Basille, M., Peters, W., Ponciano, J. M., Boitani, L., & Cagnacci, F. (2019). Movement responses of roe deer to hunting risk. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 83(1), 43-51. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21576
Preisser, E. L., Bolnick, D. I., & Benard, M. F. (2005). Scared to death? The effects of intimidation and consumption in predator-prey interactions. Ecology, 86, 501-509. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-0719
Preisser, E. L., Orrock, J. L., & Schmitz, O. J. (2007). Predator hunting mode and habitat domain alter nonconsumptive effects in predator-prey interactions. Ecology, 88, 2744-2751. https://doi.org/10.1890/07-0260.1
R Core Team. (2017). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from https://www.r-project.org/
Reebs, S. G. (2002). Plasticity of diel and circadian activity rhythms in fishes. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 12, 349-371.
Ridout, M., & Linkie, M. (2009). Estimating overlap of daily activity patterns from camera trap data. Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics, 14, 322-337. https://doi.org/10.1198/jabes.2009.08038
Roberts, C. P., Cain, J. W. III, & Cox, R. D. (2017). Identifying ecologically relevant scales of habitat selection: Diel habitat selection in elk. Ecosphere, 8, e02013. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2013
Sand, H., Zimmermann, B., Wabakken, P., Andrèn, H., & Pedersen, H. C. (2005). Using GPS technology and GIS cluster analyses to estimate kill rates in wolf-ungulate ecosystems. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 33, 914-925. https://doi.org/10.2193/0091-7648(2005)33[914:UGTAGC]2.0.CO;2
Schmidt, K. (1999). Variation in daily activity of the free-living Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland. Journal of Zoology, 249, 417-425.
Shamoon, H., Maor, R., Saltz, D., & Dayan, T. (2018). Increased mammal nocturnality in agricultural landscapes results in fragmentation due to cascading effects. Biological Conservation, 226, 32-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.07.028
Sih, A., Ferrari, M. C., & Harris, D. J. (2011). Evolution and behavioural responses to human-induced rapid environmental change. Evolutionary Applications, 4, 367-387. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00166.x
Smith, J. A., Wang, Y., & Wilmers, C. C. (2015). Top carnivores increase their kill rates on prey as a response to human-induced fear. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 282, 20142711. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2711
Sönnichsen, L., Bokje, M., Marchal, J., Hofer, H., Jędrzejewska, B., Kramer-Schadt, S., & Ortmann, S. (2013). Behavioural responses of European roe deer to temporal variation in predation risk. Ethology, 119, 233-243. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12057
Stillfried, M., Belant, J. L., Svoboda, N. J., Beyer, D. E., & Kramer-Schadt, S. (2015). When top predators become prey: Black bears alter movement behaviour in response to hunting pressure. Behavioural Processes, 120, 30-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2015.08.003
Swinnen, K. R. R., Hughes, N. K., & Leirs, H. (2015). Beaver (Castor fiber) activity patterns in a predator-free landscape: What is keeping them in the dark? Mammalian Biology, 80, 477-483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2015.07.006
Tambling, C. J., Minnie, L., Meyer, J., Freeman, E. W., Santymire, R. M., Adendorff, J., & Kerley, G. I. (2015). Temporal shifts in activity of prey following large predator reintroductions. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 69, 1153-1161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-015-1929-6
Tolon, V., Dray, S., Loison, A., Zeileis, A., Fischer, C., & Baubet, E. (2009). Responding to spatial and temporal variations in predation risk: Space use of a game species in a changing landscape of fear. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 87, 1129-1137. https://doi.org/10.1139/Z09-101
Tucker, M. A., Böhning-Gaese, K., Fagan, W. F., Fryxell, J. M., Van Moorter, B., Alberts, S. C., … Mueller, T. (2018). Moving in the Anthropocene: Global reductions in terrestrial mammalian movements. Science, 359(6374), 466-469. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam9712
Venter, O., Sanderson, E. W., Magrach, A., Allan, J. R., Beher, J., Jones, K. R., … Watson, J. E. M. (2016). Global terrestrial Human Footprint maps for 1993 and 2009. Scientific Data, 3, 160067. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.67
Williams, H. J., Holton, M. D., Shepard, E. L., Largey, N., Norman, B., Ryan, P. G., … Wilson, R. P. (2017). Identification of animal movement patterns using tri-axial magnetometry. Movement Ecology, 5(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-017-0097-x