Relationship between heatwave-induced forest die-off and climatic suitability in multiple tree species.
NDVI
canopy decay
climatic suitability
extreme climatic event
forest die-off
hot-drought
species distribution models
Journal
Global change biology
ISSN: 1365-2486
Titre abrégé: Glob Chang Biol
Pays: England
ID NLM: 9888746
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
05 2020
05 2020
Historique:
received:
01
07
2019
revised:
20
01
2020
accepted:
02
02
2020
pubmed:
18
2
2020
medline:
1
7
2020
entrez:
18
2
2020
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
In recent decades, many forest die-off events have been reported in relation to climate-change-induced episodes, such as droughts and heat waves. To understand how these extreme climatic events induce forest die-off, it is important to find a tool to standardize the climatic conditions experienced by different populations during a specific climatic event, taking into account the historic climatic conditions of the site where these populations live (bioclimatic niche). In this study, we used estimates of climatic suitability calculated from species distribution models (SDMs) for such purpose. We studied forest die-off across France during the 2003 heatwave that affected Western Europe, using 2,943 forest inventory plots dominated by 14 single tree species. Die-off severity was estimated by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) loss using Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer remote sensor imagery. Climatic suitability at the local level during the historical 1979-2002 period (HCS), the episode time (2003; ECS) and suitability deviance during the historical period (HCS-SD) were calculated for each species by means of boosted regression tree models using the CHELSA climate database and occurrences extracted from European forest inventories. Low HCS-SD and high mean annual temperature explained the overall regional pattern of vulnerability to die-off across different monospecific forests. The combination of high historical and low episode climatic suitability also contributed significantly to overall forest die-off. Furthermore, we observed different species-specific relationships between die-off vulnerability and climatic suitability: Sub-Mediterranean and Mediterranean species tended to be vulnerable in historically more suitable localities (high HCS), whereas Euro-Siberian species presented greater vulnerability when the hot drought episode was more intense. We demonstrated that at regional scale, past climatic legacy plays an important role in explaining NDVI loss during the episode. Moreover, we demonstrated that SDMs-derived indexes, such as HCS, ECS and HCS-SD, could constitute a tool for standardizing the ways that populations and species experience climatic variability across time and space.
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
3134-3146Subventions
Organisme : Spanish Ministry of Education
ID : FPU15/04593
Pays : International
Organisme : AGAUR (Generalitat de Catalunya)
ID : AGAUR 2017 SGR 1001
Pays : International
Organisme : Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness
ID : CGL2015-67419-R
Pays : International
Informations de copyright
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Références
Abeli, T., Gentili, R., Mondoni, A., Orsenigo, S., & Rossi, G. (2014). Effects of marginality on plant population performance. Journal of Biogeography, 41(2), 239-249. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12215
Adams, H. R., Barnard, H. R., & Loomis, A. K. (2014). Topography alters tree growth-climate relationships in a semi-arid forested catchment. Ecosphere, 5(11), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES14-00296.1
Allen, C. D., Breshears, D. D., & McDowell, N. G. (2015). On underestimation of global vulnerability to tree mortality and forest die-off from hotter drought in the Anthropocene. Ecosphere, 6(8), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES15-00203.1
Allen, C. D., Macalady, A. K., Chenchouni, H., Bachelet, D., McDowell, N., Vennetier, M., … Cobb, N. (2010). A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 259(4), 660-684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001
Anderegg, W. R. L., Klein, T., Bartlett, M., Sack, L., Pellegrini, A. F. A., Choat, B., & Jansen, S. (2016). Meta-analysis reveals that hydraulic traits explain cross-species patterns of drought-induced tree mortality across the globe. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(18), 5024-5029. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1525678113
Anderegg, W. R. L., Smith, D. D., Berry, J. A., Anderegg, L. D. L., Field, C. B., & Sperry, J. S. (2011). The roles of hydraulic and carbon stress in a widespread climate-induced forest die-off. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(1), 233-237. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1107891109
Barbet-Massin, M., Jiguet, F., Albert, C. H., & Thuiller, W. (2012). Selecting pseudo-absences for species distribution models: How, where and how many? Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 3(2), 327-338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-210X.2011.00172.x
Barton, K. (2018). MuMIn: Multi-model inference. Retrieved from https://cran.r-project.org/package=MuMIn
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using {lme4}. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Benito Garzón, M., Alía, R., Robson, T. M., & Zavala, M. A. (2011). Intra-specific variability and plasticity influence potential tree species distributions under climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20(5), 766-778. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00646.x
Bigler, C., Gavin, D. G., Gunning, C., & Veblen, T. T. (2007). Drought induces lagged tree mortality in a subalpine forest in the Rocky Mountains. Oikos, 116(12), 1983-1994. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2007.0030-1299.16034.x
Bottero, A., D'Amato, A. W., Palik, B. J., Bradford, J. B., Fraver, S., Battaglia, M. A., & Asherin, L. A. (2017). Density-dependent vulnerability of forest ecosystems to drought. Journal of Applied Ecology, 54(6), 1605-1614. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12847
Bréda, N., Huc, R., Granier, A., & Dreyer, E. (2006). Temperate forest trees and stands under severe drought: A review of ecophysiological responses, adaptation processes and long-term consequences. Annals of Forest Science, 63(6), 625-644. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:2006042
Breshears, D. D., Cobb, N. S., Rich, P. M., Price, K. P., Allen, C. D., Balice, R. G., … Meyer, C. W. (2005). Regional vegetation die-off in response to global-change-type drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(42), 15144-15148. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0505734102
Camarero, J. J., Franquesa, M., & Sangüesa-Barreda, G. (2015). Timing of drought triggers distinct growth responses in holm oak: Implications to predict warming-induced forest defoliation and growth decline. Forests, 6(5), 1576-1597. https://doi.org/10.3390/f6051576
Carnicer, J., Coll, M., Ninyerola, M., Pons, X., Sanchez, G., & Penuelas, J. (2011). Widespread crown condition decline, food web disruption, and amplified tree mortality with increased climate change-type drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(4), 1474-1478. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010070108
Castagneri, D., Nola, P., Motta, R., & Carrer, M. (2014). Summer climate variability over the last 250 years differently affected tree species radial growth in a mesic Fagus-Abies-Picea old-growth forest. Forest Ecology and Management, 320, 21-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.02.023
Cavin, L., & Jump, A. S. (2017). Highest drought sensitivity and lowest resistance to growth suppression are found in the range core of the tree Fagus sylvatica L. not the equatorial range edge. Global Change Biology, 23(1), 362-379. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13366
Ciais, P. H., Reichstein, M., Viovy, N., Granier, A., Ogée, J., Allard, V., … Valentini, R. (2005). Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003. Nature, 437(7058), 529-533. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03972
Clark, J. S., Iverson, L., Woodall, C. W., Allen, C. D., Bell, D. M., Bragg, D. C., … Zimmermann, N. E. (2016). The impacts of increasing drought on forest dynamics, structure, and biodiversity in the United States. Global Change Biology, 22(7), 2329-2352. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13160
Clifford, M. J., Royer, P. D., Cobb, N. S., Breshears, D. D., & Ford, P. L. (2013). Precipitation thresholds and drought-induced tree die-off: Insights from patterns of Pinus edulis mortality along an environmental stress gradient. New Phytologist, 200(2), 413-421. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12362
Elith, J., & Graham, C. H. (2009). Do they? How do they? WHY do they differ? on finding reasons for differing performances of species distribution models. Ecography, 32(1), 66-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2008.05505.x
Elith, J., Leathwick, J. R., & Hastie, T. (2008). A working guide to boosted regression trees. Journal of Animal Ecology, 77(4), 802-813. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01390.x
Faber-Langendoen, D., & Tester, J. R. (2006). Oak mortality in sand savannas following drought in east-central Minnesota. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 120(3), 248. https://doi.org/10.2307/2996989
Farrell, E. P., Führer, E., Ryan, D., Andersson, F., Hüttl, R., & Piussi, P. (2000). European forest ecosystems: Building the future on the legacy of the past. Forest Ecology and Management, 132(1), 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00375-3
Franklin, J., Davis, F. W., Ikegami, M., Syphard, A. D., Flint, L. E., Flint, A. L., & Hannah, L. (2013). Modeling plant species distributions under future climates: How fine scale do climate projections need to be? Global Change Biology, 19(2), 473-483. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12051
Galiano, L., Martínez-Vilalta, J., & Lloret, F. (2010). Drought-induced multifactor decline of Scots pine in the Pyrenees and potential vegetation change by the expansion of co-occurring oak species. Ecosystems, 13(7), 978-991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-010-9368-8
Galiano, L., Martínez-Vilalta, J., Sabaté, S., & Lloret, F. (2012). Determinants of drought effects on crown condition and their relationship with depletion of carbon reserves in a Mediterranean holm oak forest. Tree Physiology, 32(4), 478-489. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps025
Graf Pannatier, E., Dobbertin, M., Heim, A., Schmitt, M., Thimonier, A., Waldner, P., & Frey, B. (2012). Response of carbon fluxes to the 2003 heat wave and drought in three mature forests in Switzerland. Biogeochemistry, 107(1-3), 295-317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-010-9554-y
Greenwood, S., Ruiz-Benito, P., Martínez-Vilalta, J., Lloret, F., Kitzberger, T., Allen, C. D., … Jump, A. S. (2017). Tree mortality across biomes is promoted by drought intensity, lower wood density and higher specific leaf area. Ecology Letters, 20(4), 539-553. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12748
Hampe, A., & Petit, R. J. (2005). Conserving biodiversity under climate change: The rear edge matters. Ecology Letters, 8(5), 461-467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00739.x
Hanley, A. J., & McNeil, J. B. (1982). The meaning and use of the area under a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Radiology, 143, 29-36. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.143.1.7063747
Hansen, J., & Spiecker, H. (2005). Conversion of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) forests in Europe. Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests, 339-347. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203497784.ch21
Hereş, A. M., Martínez-Vilalta, J., & López, B. C. (2012). Growth patterns in relation to drought-induced mortality at two Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sites in NE Iberian Peninsula. Trees, 26(2), 621-630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-011-0628-9
Hijmans, R. J., Phillips, S., Leathwick, J., & Elith, J. (2013). Package “dismo”. Species distribution modeling. R package version 0.7-17.
IPCC. (2013). Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324
Jump, A. S., Ruiz-Benito, P., Greenwood, S., Allen, C. D., Kitzberger, T., Fensham, R., … Lloret, F. (2017). Structural overshoot of tree growth with climate variability and the global spectrum of drought-induced forest dieback. Global Change Biology, 23(9), 3742-3757. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13636
Karger, D. N., Conrad, O., Böhner, J., Kawohl, T., Kreft, H., Soria-Auza, R. W., … Kessler, M. (2017). Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas. Scientific Data, 4, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2017.122
Kaufmann, R. K., D'Arrigo, R. D., Paletta, L. F., Tian, H. Q., Jolly, W. M., & Myneni, R. B. (2008). Identifying climatic controls on ring width: The timing of correlations between tree rings and NDVI. Earth Interactions, 12(14), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008EI263.1
Kharuk, V. I., Ranson, K. J., Oskorbin, P. A., Im, S. T., & Dvinskaya, M. L. (2013). Forest ecology and management climate induced birch mortality in Trans-Baikal lake region, Siberia. Forest Ecology and Management, 289, 385-392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.10.024
Klos, R. J., Wang, G. G., Bauerle, W. L., & Rieck, J. R. (2009). Drought impact on forest growth and mortality in the southeast USA: An analysis using Forest Health and Monitoring data. Ecological Applications, 19(3), 699-708. https://doi.org/10.1890/08-0330.1
Kruskal, W. H., & Wallis, W. A. (1952). Use of ranks in one-criterion variance analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 47(260), 583-621. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1952.10483441
Kuhn, M. (2008). Building predictive models in R using the caret package. Journal of Statistical Software, 28(5), 1-26.
Lévesque, M., Rigling, A., Bugmann, H., Weber, P., & Brang, P. (2014). Growth response of five co-occurring conifers to drought across a wide climatic gradient in Central Europe. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 197, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.06.001
Linares, J. C., & Camarero, J. J. (2012). Silver fir defoliation likelihood is related to negative growth trends and high warming sensitivity at their southernmost distribution limit. ISRN Forestry, 2012, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/437690
Linares, J. C., Camarero, J. J., & Carreira, J. A. (2010). Competition modulates the adaptation capacity of forests to climatic stress: Insights from recent growth decline and death in relict stands of the Mediterranean fir Abies pinsapo. Journal of Ecology, 98(3), 592-603. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2010.01645.x
Lloret, F., de la Riva, E. G., Pérez-Ramos, I. M., Marañón, T., Saura-Mas, S., Díaz-Delgado, R., & Villar, R. (2016). Climatic events inducing die-off in Mediterranean shrublands: Are species' responses related to their functional traits? Oecologia, 180(4), 961-973. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-016-3550-4
Lloret, F., & Granzow-de la Cerda, I. (2013). Plant competition and facilitation after extreme drought episodes in Mediterranean shrubland: Does damage to vegetation cover trigger replacement by juniper woodland? Journal of Vegetation Science, 24(6), 1020-1032. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12030
Lloret, F., & Kitzberger, T. (2018). Historical and event-based bioclimatic suitability predicts regional forest vulnerability to compound effects of severe drought and bark beetle infestation. Global Change Biology, 24(5), 1952-1964. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14039
Lloret, F., Lobo, A., Estevan, H., Maisongrande, P., Vayreda, J., & Terradas, J. (2007). Woody plant richness and NDVI response to drought events in Catalonian (northeastern Spain) forests. Ecology, 88(9), 2270-2279. https://doi.org/10.1890/06-1195.1
Lloret, F., Sapes, G., Rosas, T., Galiano, L., Saura-Mas, S., Sala, A., & Martínez-Vilalta, J. (2018). Non-structural carbohydrate dynamics associated with drought-induced die-off in woody species of a shrubland community. Annals of Botany, 121(7), 1383-1396. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcy039
Lloret, F., Siscart, D., & Dalmases, C. (2004). Canopy recovery after drought dieback in holm-oak Mediterranean forests of Catalonia (NE Spain). Global Change Biology, 10(12), 2092-2099. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2004.00870.x
Luterbacher, J., Dietrich, D., Xoplaki, E., Grosjean, M., & Wanner, H. (2004). European seasonal and annual temperature variability, trends, and extremes since 1500. Science, 303(5663), 1499-1503. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1093877
Marquaridt, D. W. (1970). Generalized inverses, ridge regression, biased linear estimation, and nonlinear estimation. Technometrics, 12(3), 591-612. https://doi.org/10.1080/00401706.1970.10488699
Martinez-Vilalta, J., Lloret, F., & Breshears, D. D. (2012). Drought-induced forest decline: Causes, scope and implications. Biology Letters, 8(5), 689-691. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.1059
Matías, L., & Jump, A. S. (2012). Interactions between growth, demography and biotic interactions in determining species range limits in a warming world: The case of Pinus sylvestris. Forest Ecology and Management, 282, 10-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.06.053
Mauri, A., Strona, G., & San-Miguel-Ayanz, J. (2017). EU-Forest, a high-resolution tree occurrence dataset for Europe. Scientific Data, 4, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.123
Meyer, M. D., North, M. P., Gray, A. N., & Zald, H. S. J. (2007). Influence of soil thickness on stand characteristics in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Plant and Soil, 294(1-2), 113-123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9235-3
Olarieta, J. R., Bargués Tobella, A., Rodríguez-Ochoa, R., & Antúnez, M. (2017). Soil control over the distribution of Mediterranean oak forests in the Montsec mountains (northeastern Spain). Geoderma, 291, 11-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.12.019
Park Williams, A., Allen, C. D., Macalady, A. K., Griffin, D., Woodhouse, C. A., Meko, D. M., … McDowell, N. G. (2013). Temperature as a potent driver of regional forest drought stress and tree mortality. Nature Climate Change, 3(3), 292-297. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1693
Pearson, R. G., Thuiller, W., Araújo, M. B., Martinez-Meyer, E., Brotons, L., McClean, C., … Lees, D. C. (2006). Model-based uncertainty in species range prediction. Journal of Biogeography, 33(10), 1704-1711. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01460.x
Pérez Navarro, M. Á., Sapes, G., Batllori, E., Serra-Diaz, J. M., Esteve, M. A., & Lloret, F. (2018). Climatic suitability derived from species distribution models captures community responses to an extreme drought episode. Ecosystems, 22(1), 77-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-018-0254-0
Pichler, P., & Oberhuber, W. (2007). Radial growth response of coniferous forest trees in an inner Alpine environment to heat-wave in 2003. Forest Ecology and Management, 242(2-3), 688-699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.02.007
R Core Team. (2017). R: A languange and environment for statisical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Rebetez, M., Mayer, H., & Dupont, O. (2006). Heat and drought 2003 in Europe: A climate synthesis. Annals of Forest Science, 63, 569-577. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:2006043
Rehfeldt, G. E., Tchebakova, N. M., Parfenova, Y. I., Milyutin, L. I., Kuzmina, N. A., & Wykoff, W. R. (2002). Intraspecific responses to climate in Pinus sylvestris. Global Change Biology, 8(9), 912-929. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2002.00516.x
Ridgeway, G. (2007). Generalized boosted models: A guide to the gbm package. Compute, 1(4), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.1996.tb00390.x
Rigling, A., Bigler, C., Eilmann, B., Feldmeyer-Christe, E., Gimmi, U., Ginzler, C., … Dobbertin, M. (2013). Driving factors of a vegetation shift from Scots pine to pubescent oak in dry Alpine forests. Global Change Biology, 19(1), 229-240. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12038
Rose, L., Leuschner, C., Köckemann, B., & Buschmann, H. (2009). Are marginal beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenances a source for drought tolerant ecotypes? European Journal of Forest Research, 128(4), 335-343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-009-0268-4
Sapes, G., Serra-Diaz, J. M., & Lloret, F. (2017). Species climatic niche explains drought-induced die-off in a Mediterranean woody community. Ecosphere, 8(5), e01833. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1833
Sarris, D., Christodoulakis, D., & Körner, C. (2007). Recent decline in precipitation and tree growth in the eastern Mediterranean. Global Change Biology, 13(6), 1187-1200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01348.x
Serra-Diaz, J. M., Keenan, T. F., Ninyerola, M., Sabaté, S., Gracia, C., & Lloret, F. (2013). Geographical patterns of congruence and incongruence between correlative species distribution models and a process-based ecophysiological growth model. Journal of Biogeography, 40(10), 1928-1938. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12142
Sexton, J. P., McIntyre, P. J., Angert, A. L., & Rice, K. J. (2009). Evolution and ecology of species range limits. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 40(1), 415-436. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120317
Soudani, K., Hmimina, G., Delpierre, N., Pontailler, J.-Y., Aubinet, M., Bonal, D., … Dufrêne, E. (2012). Ground-based network of NDVI measurements for tracking temporal dynamics of canopy structure and vegetation phenology in different biomes. Remote Sensing of Environment, 123, 234-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.03.012
Steinkamp, J., & Hickler, T. (2015). Is drought-induced forest dieback globally increasing? Journal of Ecology, 103(1), 31-43. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12335
Tarpley, J. D., Schneider, S. R., & Money, R. L. (1984). Global vegetation indices from the NOAA-7 meteorological satellite. Journal of Climate and Applied Meterology, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1984)023<0491:GVIFTN>2.0.CO;2
Thuiller, W., Araújo, M. B., Pearson, R. G., Whittaker, R. J., Brotons, L., & Lavorel, S. (2004). Uncertainty in predictions of extinction risk. Nature, 430(6995), 34-34. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02716
Thuiller, W., Münkemüller, T., Schiffers, K. H., Georges, D., Dullinger, S., Eckhart, V. M., … Schurr, F. M. (2014). Does probability of occurrence relate to population dynamics? Ecography, 37(12), 1155-1166. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.00836
Valladares, F., Matesanz, S., Guilhaumon, F., Araújo, M. B., Balaguer, L., Benito-Garzón, M., … Zavala, M. A. (2014). The effects of phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation on forecasts of species range shifts under climate change. Ecology Letters, 17(11), 1351-1364. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12348
van der Maaten, E., Hamann, A., van der Maaten-Theunissen, M., Bergsma, A., Hengeveld, G., van Lammeren, R., … Sterck, F. (2017). Species distribution models predict temporal but not spatial variation in forest growth. Ecology and Evolution, 7(8), 2585-2594. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.2696
van Mantgem, P. J., Stephenson, N. L., Byrne, J. C., Daniels, L. D., Franklin, J. F., Fule, P. Z., … Veblen, T. T. (2009). Widespread increase of tree mortality rates in the western United States. Science, 323(5913), 521-524. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1165000
Vilà-Cabrera, A., Martínez-Vilalta, J., Galiano, L., & Retana, J. (2013). Patterns of forest decline and regeneration across Scots pine populations. Ecosystems, 16(2), 323-335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-012-9615-2
Vilà-Cabrera, A., Martínez-Vilalta, J., Vayreda, J., & Retana, J. ((2011). Structural and climatic determinants of demographic rates of Scots pine forests across the Iberian Peninsula. Ecological Applications, 21(4), 1162-1172. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-0647.1
Waldboth, M., & Oberhuber, W. (2009). Synergistic effect of drought and chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) on growth decline of European chestnut (Castanea sativa). Forest Pathology, 39(1), 43-55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0329.2008.00562.x
Western, A. W., Grayson, R. B., & Blöschl, G. (2002). Scaling of soil moisture: A hydrologic perspective. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 30(1), 149-180. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.140434
Young, D. J. N., Stevens, J. T., Earles, J. M., Moore, J., Ellis, A., Jirka, A. L., & Latimer, A. M. (2017). Long-term climate and competition explain forest mortality patterns under extreme drought. Ecology Letters, 20(1), 78-86. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12711
Yuhas, A. N., & Scuderi, L. A. (2009). MODIS-derived NDVI characterisation of drought-induced evergreen dieoff in Western North America. Geographical Research, 47(1), 34-45. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2008.00557.x
Zaitchik, B. F., Macalady, A. K., Bonneau, L. R., & Smith, R. B. (2006). Europe's 2003 heat wave: A satellite view of impacts and land-atmosphere feedbacks. International Journal of Climatology, 26(6), 743-769. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1280