Key steps for effective breast cancer prevention.
Journal
Nature reviews. Cancer
ISSN: 1474-1768
Titre abrégé: Nat Rev Cancer
Pays: England
ID NLM: 101124168
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
08 2020
08 2020
Historique:
accepted:
23
04
2020
pubmed:
13
6
2020
medline:
11
11
2020
entrez:
13
6
2020
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Despite decades of laboratory, epidemiological and clinical research, breast cancer incidence continues to rise. Breast cancer remains the leading cancer-related cause of disease burden for women, affecting one in 20 globally and as many as one in eight in high-income countries. Reducing breast cancer incidence will likely require both a population-based approach of reducing exposure to modifiable risk factors and a precision-prevention approach of identifying women at increased risk and targeting them for specific interventions, such as risk-reducing medication. We already have the capacity to estimate an individual woman's breast cancer risk using validated risk assessment models, and the accuracy of these models is likely to continue to improve over time, particularly with inclusion of newer risk factors, such as polygenic risk and mammographic density. Evidence-based risk-reducing medications are cheap, widely available and recommended by professional health bodies; however, widespread implementation of these has proven challenging. The barriers to uptake of, and adherence to, current medications will need to be considered as we deepen our understanding of breast cancer initiation and begin developing and testing novel preventives.
Identifiants
pubmed: 32528185
doi: 10.1038/s41568-020-0266-x
pii: 10.1038/s41568-020-0266-x
doi:
Substances chimiques
Antineoplastic Agents
0
Types de publication
Journal Article
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
417-436Subventions
Organisme : Cancer Research UK
ID : 5032
Pays : United Kingdom
Références
Narod, S. A., Iqbal, J. & Miller, A. B. Why have breast cancer mortality rates declined? J. Cancer Policy 5, 8–17 (2015).
doi: 10.1016/j.jcpo.2015.03.002
Althuis, M. D., Dozier, J. M., Anderson, W. F., Devesa, S. S. & Brinton, L. A. Global trends in breast cancer incidence and mortality 1973–1997. Int. J. Epidemiol. 34, 405–412 (2005).
pubmed: 15737977
doi: 10.1093/ije/dyh414
Boffetta, P. & Parkin, D. M. Cancer in developing countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 44, 81–90 (1994).
pubmed: 8124607
doi: 10.3322/canjclin.44.2.81
Glass, A. G. & Hoover, R. N. Rising incidence of breast cancer: relationship to stage and receptor status. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 82, 693–696 (1990).
pubmed: 2319611
doi: 10.1093/jnci/82.8.693
Li, C. I., Daling, J. R. & Malone, K. E. Incidence of invasive breast cancer by hormone receptor status from 1992 to 1998. J. Clin. Oncol. 21, 28–34 (2003). This paper uses data from the NCI SEER Program to show that the proportion of hormone receptor-positive tumours rose in the 1990s.
pubmed: 12506166
doi: 10.1200/JCO.2003.03.088
Parkin, D. M. & Fernandez, L. M. Use of statistics to assess the global burden of breast cancer. Breast J. 12 (Suppl. 1), S70–S80 (2006).
pubmed: 16430400
doi: 10.1111/j.1075-122X.2006.00205.x
Ries, L. A. G., Melbert, D. & Krapcho, M. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2004 (NIH, 2006).
Global Burden of Disease Cancer Collaboration. et al. Global, regional, and national cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life-years for 29 cancer groups, 1990 to 2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease study. JAMA Oncol. 4, 1553–1568 (2018).
doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2018.2706
Bigaard, J., Stahlberg, C., Jensen, M. B., Ewertz, M. & Kroman, N. Breast cancer incidence by estrogen receptor status in Denmark from 1996 to 2007. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 136, 559–564 (2012).
pubmed: 23053655
doi: 10.1007/s10549-012-2269-0
Coughlin, S. S. Epidemiology of Breast Cancer in Women Vol. 1152 (ed. Ahmad, A.) (Springer, 2019).
He, C. et al. A large-scale candidate gene association study of age at menarche and age at natural menopause. Hum. Genet. 128, 515–527 (2010).
pubmed: 20734064
pmcid: 2967297
doi: 10.1007/s00439-010-0878-4
Stolk, L. et al. Meta-analyses identify 13 loci associated with age at menopause and highlight DNA repair and immune pathways. Nat. Genet. 44, 260–268 (2012).
pubmed: 22267201
pmcid: 3288642
doi: 10.1038/ng.1051
Stone, J. et al. The heritability of mammographically dense and nondense breast tissue. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 612–617 (2006).
pubmed: 16614099
doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0127
Broca, P. Taite des tumeurs Vol. 13 (Libraire De La Faculte De Medecine, 1866).
Miki, Y. et al. A strong candidate for the breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1. Science 266, 66–71 (1994). This study uses positional cloning to identify the chromosome 17q-linked BRCA1 gene as a tumour suppressor, which if mutated predisposes individuals to both breast cancer and ovarian cancer.
pubmed: 7545954
doi: 10.1126/science.7545954
Wooster, R. et al. Identification of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2. Nature 378, 789–792 (1995). This study identifies the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2 on chromosome 13q12-q13 with mutations detected in this gene in families with breast cancer.
pubmed: 8524414
doi: 10.1038/378789a0
Ligtenberg, M. J. et al. Characteristics of small breast and/or ovarian cancer families with germline mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2. Br. J. Cancer 79, 1475–1478 (1999).
pubmed: 10188893
pmcid: 2362698
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6690235
Kuchenbaecker, K. B. et al. Risks of breast, ovarian, and contralateral breast cancer for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. JAMA 317, 2402–2416 (2017). This prospective cohort study of BRCA1 and BRCA2 female carriers shows that the risk of breast cancer by 80 years of age was 72% and 69%, respectively.
pubmed: 28632866
doi: 10.1001/jama.2017.7112
Easton, D. F. et al. Gene-panel sequencing and the prediction of breast-cancer risk. N. Engl. J. Med. 372, 2243–2257 (2015). This special report on multigene or panel testing looks for the presence of genetic variants that may be associated with a risk of breast cancer.
pubmed: 26014596
pmcid: 4610139
doi: 10.1056/NEJMsr1501341
National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Genetic/Familial High-risk Assessment: Breast and Ovarian (National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019).
Michailidou, K. et al. Genome-wide association analysis of more than 120,000 individuals identifies 15 new susceptibility loci for breast cancer. Nat. Genet. 47, 373–380 (2015).
pubmed: 25751625
pmcid: 4549775
doi: 10.1038/ng.3242
Mavaddat, N. et al. Prediction of breast cancer risk based on profiling with common genetic variants. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 107, djv036 (2015).
pubmed: 25855707
pmcid: 4754625
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djv036
Mavaddat, N. et al. Polygenic risk scores for prediction of breast cancer and breast cancer subtypes. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 104, 21–34 (2019). This paper develops a PRS for predicting breast cancer using the largest available genome-wide association data set.
pubmed: 30554720
doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.11.002
Rudolph, A. et al. Joint associations of a polygenic risk score and environmental risk factors for breast cancer in the Breast Cancer Association Consortium. Int. J. Epidemiol. 47, 526–536 (2018).
pubmed: 29315403
pmcid: 5913605
doi: 10.1093/ije/dyx242
Muranen, T. A. et al. Genetic modifiers of CHEK2*1100delC-associated breast cancer risk. Genet. Med. 19, 599–603 (2017).
pubmed: 27711073
doi: 10.1038/gim.2016.147
Kuchenbaecker, K. B. et al. Associations of common breast cancer susceptibility alleles with risk of breast cancer subtypes in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Res. 16, 3416 (2014).
pubmed: 25919761
pmcid: 4406179
doi: 10.1186/s13058-014-0492-9
Esserman, L. J., Study, W. & Athena, I. The WISDOM study: breaking the deadlock in the breast cancer screening debate. NPJ Breast Cancer 3, 34 (2017).
pubmed: 28944288
pmcid: 5597574
doi: 10.1038/s41523-017-0035-5
Evans, D. G. R. et al. Breast cancer pathology and stage are better predicted by risk stratification models that include mammographic density and common genetic variants. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 176, 141–148 (2019).
pubmed: 30941651
pmcid: 6548748
doi: 10.1007/s10549-019-05210-2
Gabrielson, M. et al. Cohort profile: The Karolinska Mammography Project for Risk Prediction of Breast Cancer (KARMA). Int. J. Epidemiol. 46, 1740–1741g (2017).
pubmed: 28180256
pmcid: 5837703
doi: 10.1093/ije/dyw357
French, J. D. et al. Functional variants at the 11q13 risk locus for breast cancer regulate cyclin D1 expression through long-range enhancers. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 92, 489–503 (2013).
pubmed: 23540573
pmcid: 3617380
doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.01.002
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and breastfeeding: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50 302 women with breast cancer and 96 973 women without the disease. Lancet 360, 187–195 (2002). This reanalysis of 47 epidemiological studies shows that the RR of breast cancer is reduced by 4.3% for each year a woman breastfeeds, in addition to a reduction of 7% for each birth.
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09454-0
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Menarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol. 13, 1141–1151 (2012). This meta-analysis of data from 117 epidemiological studies shows that each year younger at menarche or older at menopause is associated with a 5% and 2.9% increased risk of breast cancer, respectively.
pmcid: 3488186
doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(12)70425-4
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Type and timing of menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of the worldwide epidemiological evidence. Lancet 394, 1159–1168 (2019). This meta-analysis of MHT use shows that all therapy types except vaginal oestrogens are associated with increased breast cancer risk.
pmcid: 6891893
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31709-X
Dall, G. V. & Britt, K. L. Estrogen effects on the mammary gland in early and late life and breast cancer risk. Front. Oncol. 7, 110 (2017).
pubmed: 28603694
pmcid: 5445118
doi: 10.3389/fonc.2017.00110
MacMahon, B. et al. Age at first birth and breast cancer risk. Bull. World Health Organ. 43, 209–221 (1970). This landmark international collaborative study shows that a young age at first childbirth significantly decreases breast cancer risk.
pubmed: 5312521
pmcid: 2427645
Morris, D. H., Jones, M. E., Schoemaker, M. J., Ashworth, A. & Swerdlow, A. J. Secular trends in age at menarche in women in the UK born 1908–93: results from the breakthrough generations study. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 25, 394–400 (2011).
pubmed: 21649682
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2011.01202.x
Braithwaite, D. et al. Socioeconomic status in relation to early menarche among black and white girls. Cancer Causes Control. 20, 713–720 (2009).
pubmed: 19107561
doi: 10.1007/s10552-008-9284-9
Sisti, J. S. et al. Reproductive risk factors in relation to molecular subtypes of breast cancer: results from the Nurses’ Health Studies. Int. J. Cancer 138, 2346–2356 (2016).
pubmed: 26684063
pmcid: 5245093
doi: 10.1002/ijc.29968
Silva, C. A. et al. Gonadal function in adolescents and young women with juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 11, 419–425 (2002).
pubmed: 12195782
doi: 10.1191/0961203302lu219oa
Harris, M. A., Prior, J. C. & Koehoorn, M. Age at menarche in the Canadian population: secular trends and relationship to adulthood BMI. J. Adolesc. Health 43, 548–554 (2008).
pubmed: 19027642
doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.07.017
Fernandez-Rhodes, L. et al. Association of adiposity genetic variants with menarche timing in 92,105 women of European descent. Am. J. Epidemiol. 178, 451–460 (2013).
pubmed: 23558354
pmcid: 3816344
doi: 10.1093/aje/kws473
Chisholm, J. S., Quinlivan, J. A., Petersen, R. W. & Coall, D. A. Early stress predicts age at menarche and first birth, adult attachment, and expected lifespan. Hum. Nat. 16, 233–265 (2005).
pubmed: 26189749
doi: 10.1007/s12110-005-1009-0
Carwile, J. L. et al. Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and age at menarche in a prospective study of US girls. Hum. Reprod. 30, 675–683 (2015).
pubmed: 25628346
pmcid: 4325672
doi: 10.1093/humrep/deu349
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. & Draper, P. Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: and evolutionary theory of socialization. Child. Dev. 62, 647–670 (1991).
pubmed: 1935336
doi: 10.2307/1131166
Behie, A. M. & O’Donnell, M. H. Prenatal smoking and age at menarche: influence of the prenatal environment on the timing of puberty. Hum. Reprod. 30, 957–962 (2015).
pubmed: 25740885
doi: 10.1093/humrep/dev033
Elks, C. E. et al. Thirty new loci for age at menarche identified by a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies. Nat. Genet. 42, 1077–1085 (2010).
pubmed: 21102462
pmcid: 3140055
doi: 10.1038/ng.714
Boynton-Jarrett, R. et al. Gestational weight gain and daughter’s age at menarche. J. Womens Health 20, 1193–1200 (2011).
doi: 10.1089/jwh.2010.2517
Deardorff, J. et al. Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI, gestational weight gain, and age at menarche in daughters. Matern. Child. Health J. 17, 1391–1398 (2013).
pubmed: 23054446
pmcid: 3582726
doi: 10.1007/s10995-012-1139-z
Gao, Y. T. et al. Association of menstrual and reproductive factors with breast cancer risk: results from the Shanghai Breast Cancer Study. Int. J. Cancer 87, 295–300 (2000).
pubmed: 10861490
doi: 10.1002/1097-0215(20000715)87:2<295::AID-IJC23>3.0.CO;2-7
O’Brien, K. M., Sun, J., Sandler, D. P., DeRoo, L. A. & Weinberg, C. R. Risk factors for young-onset invasive and in situ breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 26, 1771–1778 (2015).
pubmed: 26407954
pmcid: 5119634
doi: 10.1007/s10552-015-0670-9
Reeves, G. K. et al. Reproductive factors and specific histological types of breast cancer: prospective study and meta-analysis. Br. J. Cancer 100, 538–544 (2009).
pubmed: 19190634
pmcid: 2658546
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6604853
Rodstrom, K. et al. Evidence for a secular trend in menopausal age: a population study of women in Gothenburg. Menopause 10, 538–543 (2003).
pubmed: 14627863
doi: 10.1097/01.GME.0000094395.59028.0F
Gold, E. B. et al. Factors related to age at natural menopause: longitudinal analyses from SWAN. Am. J. Epidemiol. 178, 70–83 (2013).
pubmed: 23788671
pmcid: 3698989
doi: 10.1093/aje/kws421
Gold, E. B. et al. Factors associated with age at natural menopause in a multiethnic sample of midlife women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 153, 865–874 (2001).
pubmed: 11323317
doi: 10.1093/aje/153.9.865
Gold, E. B. The timing of the age at which natural menopause occurs. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North. Am. 38, 425–440 (2011).
pubmed: 21961711
pmcid: 3285482
doi: 10.1016/j.ogc.2011.05.002
He, L. N. et al. Association study of the oestrogen signalling pathway genes in relation to age at natural menopause. J. Genet. 86, 269–276 (2007).
pubmed: 18305346
doi: 10.1007/s12041-007-0034-7
Weel, A. E. et al. Estrogen receptor polymorphism predicts the onset of natural and surgical menopause. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 84, 3146–3150 (1999).
pubmed: 10487678
den Tonkelaar, I., te Velde, E. R. & Looman, C. W. Menstrual cycle length preceding menopause in relation to age at menopause. Maturitas 29, 115–123 (1998).
doi: 10.1016/S0378-5122(98)00013-9
Ramazzini, B. De Morbis Artificum (Diseases of Workers) (University of Chicago Press, 1940).
Albrektsen, G., Heuch, I., Hansen, S. & Kvale, G. Breast cancer risk by age at birth, time since birth and time intervals between births: exploring interaction effects. Br. J. Cancer 92, 167–175 (2005).
pubmed: 15597097
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602302
Ursin, G. et al. Reproductive factors and subtypes of breast cancer defined by hormone receptor and histology. Br. J. Cancer 93, 364–371 (2005).
pubmed: 16079783
pmcid: 2361558
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602712
Ma, H., Bernstein, L., Pike, M. C. & Ursin, G. Reproductive factors and breast cancer risk according to joint estrogen and progesterone receptor status: a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Breast Cancer Res. 8, R43 (2006). This meta-analysis of epidemiological studies investigates parity, age at first birth, breastfeeding and age at menarche in relation to ER
pubmed: 16859501
pmcid: 1779465
doi: 10.1186/bcr1525
Anderson, K. N., Schwab, R. B. & Martinez, M. E. Reproductive risk factors and breast cancer subtypes: a review of the literature. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 144, 1–10 (2014).
pubmed: 24477977
pmcid: 4026199
doi: 10.1007/s10549-014-2852-7
Tamimi, R. M. et al. Traditional breast cancer risk factors in relation to molecular subtypes of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 131, 159–167 (2012).
pubmed: 21830014
doi: 10.1007/s10549-011-1702-0
Gaudet, M. M. et al. Risk factors by molecular subtypes of breast cancer across a population-based study of women 56 years or younger. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 130, 587–597 (2011).
pubmed: 21667121
pmcid: 3721192
doi: 10.1007/s10549-011-1616-x
Australian Birth Statistics. Births, Australia, 2017 Cat. No. 3301.0 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2018).
Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., Osterman, M. J. K. & Rossen, L. M. Births: Provisional data for 2018 (NCHS, 2019).
Office for National Statistics. Births in England and Wales 2018, Statistical Bulletin (2019).
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Reproductive Health Indicators Australia 2002 Cat. No. PER 20 (Pew Research Center, 2003).
Livingstone, G. & Cohn, D. Childlessness Up Among all Women; Down Among Women with Advanced Degrees (Pew Research Center, 2010).
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Cancer in Australia 2017 Cat. No. CAN 100 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2017).
Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Osterman, M. J. K., Driscoll, A. K. & Drake, P. Final data for 2017 National Vital Statistics Reports Vol. 67 No. 8 Report No. 1568–7856 (Electronic) 1568–7856 (Linking), 844–855 (National Center for Health Statistics, 2018).
Huo, D. et al. Parity and breastfeeding are protective against breast cancer in Nigerian women. Br. J. Cancer 98, 992–996 (2008).
pubmed: 18301401
pmcid: 2266848
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6604275
Khalis, M. et al. Menstrual and reproductive factors and risk of breast cancer: a case–control study in the Fez region, Morocco. PLoS One 13, e0191333 (2018).
pubmed: 29338058
pmcid: 5770054
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191333
Schedin, P. Pregnancy-associated breast cancer and metastasis. Nat. Rev. Cancer 6, 281–291 (2006). This comprehensive Review discusses the role of the pro-inflammatory immune microenvironment of the post-partum breast in the development of pregnancy-associated breast cancer.
pubmed: 16557280
doi: 10.1038/nrc1839
Britt, K., Ashworth, A. & Smalley, M. Pregnancy and the risk of breast cancer. Endocr. Relat. Cancer 14, 907–933 (2007).
pubmed: 18045947
doi: 10.1677/ERC-07-0137
Dall, G. V. et al. Estrogen receptor subtypes dictate the proliferative nature of the mammary gland. J. Endocrinol. 237, 323–336 (2018).
pubmed: 29636363
doi: 10.1530/JOE-17-0582
Chang, C. C. et al. A human breast epithelial cell type with stem cell characteristics as target cells for carcinogenesis. Radiat. Res. 155, 201–207 (2001).
pubmed: 11121235
doi: 10.1667/0033-7587(2001)155[0201:AHBECT]2.0.CO;2
Russo, J., Tay, L. K. & Russo, I. H. Differentiation of the mammary gland and susceptibility to carcinogenesis. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 2, 5–73 (1982).
pubmed: 6216933
doi: 10.1007/BF01805718
Russo, I. H. & Russo, J. Developmental stage of the rat mammary gland as determinant of its susceptibility to 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 61, 1439–1449 (1978).
pubmed: 102856
Land, C. E. et al. Incidence of female breast cancer among atomic bomb survivors, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1950–1990. Radiat. Res. 160, 707–717 (2003).
pubmed: 14640793
doi: 10.1667/RR3082
Tokunaga, M. et al. Incidence of female breast cancer among atomic bomb survivors, 1950–1985. Radiat. Res. 138, 209–223 (1994).
pubmed: 8183991
doi: 10.2307/3578591
Britt, K. L. et al. Pregnancy in the mature adult mouse does not alter the proportion of mammary epithelial stem/progenitor cells. Breast Cancer Res. 11, R20 (2009).
pubmed: 19386118
doi: 10.1186/bcr2245
pmcid: 2688949
Meier-Abt, F. et al. Parity induces differentiation and reduces Wnt/Notch signaling ratio and proliferation potential of basal stem/progenitor cells isolated from mouse mammary epithelium. Breast Cancer Res. 15, R36 (2013).
pubmed: 23621987
doi: 10.1186/bcr3419
pmcid: 3672662
Siwko, S. K. et al. Evidence that an early pregnancy causes a persistent decrease in the number of functional mammary epithelial stem cells—implications for pregnancy-induced protection against breast cancer. Stem Cell 26, 3205–3209 (2008).
doi: 10.1634/stemcells.2008-0103
Dall, G. V. et al. SCA-1 labels a subset of estrogen-responsive bipotential repopulating cells within the CD24
doi: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2016.12.022
Jindal, S. et al. Postpartum breast involution reveals regression of secretory lobules mediated by tissue-remodeling. Breast Cancer Res. 16, R31 (2014).
pubmed: 24678808
pmcid: 4053254
doi: 10.1186/bcr3633
Martinson, H. A., Jindal, S., Durand-Rougely, C., Borges, V. F. & Schedin, P. Wound healing-like immune program facilitates postpartum mammary gland involution and tumor progression. Int. J. Cancer 136, 1803–1813 (2015). This study finds that the post-partum mammary gland of mice is in an immunosuppressed state immediately after pregnancy, which can drive tumour formation.
pubmed: 25187059
doi: 10.1002/ijc.29181
Santucci-Pereira, J. et al. Genomic signature of parity in the breast of premenopausal women. Breast Cancer Res. 21, 46 (2019).
pubmed: 30922380
pmcid: 6438043
doi: 10.1186/s13058-019-1128-x
Balogh, G. A. et al. Genomic signature induced by pregnancy in the human breast. Int. J. Oncol. 28, 399–410 (2006).
pubmed: 16391795
Lambertini, M. et al. Reproductive behaviors and risk of developing breast cancer according to tumor subtype: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Cancer Treat. Rev. 49, 65–76 (2016).
pubmed: 27529149
doi: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2016.07.006
Hadjisavvas, A. et al. An investigation of breast cancer risk factors in Cyprus: a case control study. BMC Cancer 10, 447 (2010).
pubmed: 20727220
doi: 10.1186/1471-2407-10-447
pmcid: 2933629
Fortner, R. T. et al. Parity, breastfeeding, and breast cancer risk by hormone receptor status and molecular phenotype: results from the Nurses’ Health Studies. Breast Cancer Res. 21, 40 (2019).
pubmed: 30867002
pmcid: 6416887
doi: 10.1186/s13058-019-1119-y
Islami, F. et al. Breastfeeding and breast cancer risk by receptor status — a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Oncol. 26, 2398–2407 (2015).
pubmed: 26504151
doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdv379
pmcid: 4855244
Takabatake, Y. et al. Lactation opposes pappalysin-1-driven pregnancy-associated breast cancer. EMBO Mol. Med. 8, 388–406 (2016).
pubmed: 26951623
doi: 10.15252/emmm.201606273
pmcid: 4818749
World Heath Organization. Global Strategy on Infant and Young Child Feeding: Infant and Young Child Nutrition (WHO, 2002).
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2010 Australian National Infant Feeding Survey: Indicator Results (AIHW, 2011).
Ayton, J., van der Mei, I., Wills, K., Hansen, E. & Nelson, M. Cumulative risks and cessation of exclusive breast feeding: Australian cross-sectional survey. Arch. Dis. Child. 100, 863–868 (2015).
pubmed: 26056146
doi: 10.1136/archdischild-2014-307833
McAndrew, F. et al. Infant Feeding Survey 2010 (Health and Social Care Information Centre, IFF Research, 2012).
Victora, C. G. et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet 387, 475–490 (2016).
pubmed: 26869575
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01024-7
Rollins, N. C. et al. Why invest, and what it will take to improve breastfeeding practices? Lancet 387, 491–504 (2016).
pubmed: 26869576
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01044-2
Sickles, E. A., D’Orsi, C. J., Bassett, L. W. ACR BI-RADS Mammography Vol. 5 134–136 (American College of Radiology, 2013).
Spak, D. A., Plaxco, J. S., Santiago, L., Dryden, M. J. & Dogan, B. E. BI-RADS
pubmed: 28131457
doi: 10.1016/j.diii.2017.01.001
McCormack, V. A. & dos Santos Silva, I. Breast density and parenchymal patterns as markers of breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 1159–1169 (2006). This meta-analysis shows that increasing breast density is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer.
pubmed: 16775176
doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-06-0034
Krishnan, K. et al. Mammographic density and risk of breast cancer by mode of detection and tumor size: a case–control study. Breast Cancer Res. 18, 63 (2016).
pubmed: 27316945
pmcid: 4912759
doi: 10.1186/s13058-016-0722-4
Hopper, J. L. Odds per adjusted standard deviation: comparing strengths of associations for risk factors measured on different scales and across diseases and populations. Am. J. Epidemiol. 182, 863–867 (2015).
pubmed: 26520360
pmcid: 4757943
doi: 10.1093/aje/kwv193
Sprague, B. L. et al. Prevalence of mammographically dense breasts in the United States. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 106, dju255 (2014).
pubmed: 25217577
pmcid: 4200066
doi: 10.1093/jnci/dju255
Huo, C. W. et al. High mammographic density is associated with an increase in stromal collagen and immune cells within the mammary epithelium. Breast Cancer Res. 17, 79 (2015).
pubmed: 26040322
pmcid: 4485361
doi: 10.1186/s13058-015-0592-1
Huo, C. W. et al. High mammographic density in women is associated with protumor inflammation. Breast Cancer Res. 20, 92 (2018).
pubmed: 30092832
pmcid: 6085707
doi: 10.1186/s13058-018-1010-2
Cuzick, J. et al. Tamoxifen-induced reduction in mammographic density and breast cancer risk reduction: a nested case–control study. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 103, 744–752 (2011). This nested case–control study within the IBIS-1 prevention trial shows that women in the tamoxifen group who experienced a 10% or greater reduction in breast density had a 63% reduction in breast cancer risk.
pubmed: 21483019
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djr079
Shawky, M. S. et al. Mammographic density: a potential monitoring biomarker for adjuvant and preventative breast cancer endocrine therapies. Oncotarget 8, 5578–5591 (2017).
pubmed: 27894075
doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.13484
Wolfe, J. N. Risk for breast cancer development determined by mammographic parenchymal pattern. Cancer 37, 2486–2492 (1976).
pubmed: 1260729
doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(197605)37:5<2486::AID-CNCR2820370542>3.0.CO;2-8
Boyd, N. F. et al. Quantitative classification of mammographic densities and breast cancer risk: results from the Canadian National Breast Screening Study. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 87, 670–675 (1995).
pubmed: 7752271
doi: 10.1093/jnci/87.9.670
Suzuki, R., Orsini, N., Saji, S., Key, T. J. & Wolk, A. Body weight and incidence of breast cancer defined by estrogen and progesterone receptor status-a meta-analysis. Int. J. Cancer 124, 698–712 (2009). This meta-analysis shows that postmenopausal women in the highest body weight categories had an 80% increased RR for breast cancer compared with those in the lowest weight categories.
pubmed: 18988226
doi: 10.1002/ijc.23943
Renehan, A. G., Zwahlen, M. & Egger, M. Adiposity and cancer risk: new mechanistic insights from epidemiology. Nat. Rev. Cancer 15, 484–498 (2015).
pubmed: 26205341
doi: 10.1038/nrc3967
Travis, R. C. & Key, T. J. Oestrogen exposure and breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res. 5, 239–247 (2003).
pubmed: 12927032
pmcid: 314432
doi: 10.1186/bcr628
Brinton, L. A. et al. Anthropometric and hormonal risk factors for male breast cancer: male breast cancer pooling project results. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 106, djt465 (2014).
pubmed: 24552677
pmcid: 3975166
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djt465
Eliassen, A. H., Colditz, G. A., Rosner, B., Willett, W. C. & Hankinson, S. E. Adult weight change and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. JAMA 296, 193–201 (2006). This study uses data from the Nurses’ Health Study to show that women who maintained or lost weight as they got older had a reduced RR of postmenopausal breast cancer compared with those who gained weight.
pubmed: 16835425
doi: 10.1001/jama.296.2.193
Harvie, M. et al. Association of gain and loss of weight before and after menopause with risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 14, 656–661 (2005).
pubmed: 15767346
doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-04-0001
Mannisto, S. et al. Body-size indicators and risk of breast cancer according to menopause and estrogen-receptor status. Int. J. Cancer 68, 8–13 (1996).
pubmed: 8895532
doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19960927)68:1<8::AID-IJC2>3.0.CO;2-V
Keum, N. et al. Adult weight gain and adiposity-related cancers: a dose–response meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 107, djv088 (2015).
pubmed: 25757865
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djv088
Renehan, A. G. et al. Young adulthood body mass index, adult weight gain and breast cancer risk: the PROCAS study (United Kingdom). Br. J. Cancer 122, 1552–1561 (2020).
pubmed: 32203222
pmcid: 7217761
doi: 10.1038/s41416-020-0807-9
Lynch, B. M., Neilson, H. K. & Friedenreich, C. M. Physical activity and breast cancer prevention. Recent. Results Cancer Res. 186, 13–42 (2011).
pubmed: 21113759
doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-04231-7_2
Neilson, H. K. et al. Moderate–vigorous recreational physical activity and breast cancer risk, stratified by menopause status: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Menopause 24, 322–344 (2017).
pubmed: 27779567
doi: 10.1097/GME.0000000000000745
World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Physical Activity and the Risk of Cancer Report No. 0022-2623 (Print) 0022-2623 (Linking) https://www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Physical-activity.pdf (2018).
Wu, Y., Zhang, D. & Kang, S. Physical activity and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 137, 869–882 (2013).
pubmed: 23274845
doi: 10.1007/s10549-012-2396-7
World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity and Breast Cancer https://www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Summary-of-Third-Expert-Report-2018.pdf (2018).
Lammert, J. et al. Physical activity during adolescence and young adulthood and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 169, 561–571 (2018).
pubmed: 29404807
doi: 10.1007/s10549-018-4694-1
Wang, M. et al. Prepubertal physical activity up-regulates estrogen receptor β, BRCA1 and p53 mRNA expression in the rat mammary gland. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 115, 213–220 (2009).
pubmed: 18516675
doi: 10.1007/s10549-008-0062-x
Kurgan, N. et al. Inhibition of human lung cancer cell proliferation and survival by post-exercise serum is associated with the inhibition of Akt, mTOR, p70 S6K, and Erk1/2. Cancers (Basel) 9, 46 (2017).
doi: 10.3390/cancers9050046
Rundqvist, H. et al. Effect of acute exercise on prostate cancer cell growth. PLoS One 8, e67579 (2013).
pubmed: 23861774
pmcid: 3702495
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067579
Dethlefsen, C. et al. Exercise-induced catecholamines activate the hippo tumor suppressor pathway to reduce risks of breast cancer development. Cancer Res. 77, 4894–4904 (2017).
pubmed: 28887324
doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-16-3125
National Statistics NHS. Health Survey for England 2012 (NHS, 2013).
Chen, W. Y., Rosner, B., Hankinson, S. E., Colditz, G. A. & Willett, W. C. Moderate alcohol consumption during adult life, drinking patterns, and breast cancer risk. JAMA 306, 1884–1890 (2011). This paper uses data from the Nurses’ Health Study to show that women consuming 3–6 glasses of wine per week or two drinks per day were 15% or 50% more likely, respectively, to develop breast cancer than non-drinkers.
pubmed: 22045766
pmcid: 3292347
doi: 10.1001/jama.2011.1590
Allen, N. E. et al. Moderate alcohol intake and cancer incidence in women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 101, 296–305 (2009).
pubmed: 19244173
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djn514
Arriaga, M. E. et al. The preventable burden of breast cancers for premenopausal and postmenopausal women in Australia: a pooled cohort study. Int. J. Cancer 145, 2383–2394 (2019).
pubmed: 30802946
doi: 10.1002/ijc.32231
Singletary, K. W. & Gapstur, S. M. Alcohol and breast cancer: review of epidemiologic and experimental evidence and potential mechanisms. JAMA 286, 2143–2151 (2001).
pubmed: 11694156
doi: 10.1001/jama.286.17.2143
Dorgan, J. F. et al. Serum hormones and the alcohol–breast cancer association in postmenopausal women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 93, 710–715 (2001).
pubmed: 11333294
doi: 10.1093/jnci/93.9.710
Triano, E. A. et al. Class I alcohol dehydrogenase is highly expressed in normal human mammary epithelium but not in invasive breast cancer: implications for breast carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 63, 3092–3100 (2003).
pubmed: 12810634
Seitz, H. K. & Stickel, F. Acetaldehyde as an underestimated risk factor for cancer development: role of genetics in ethanol metabolism. Genes Nutr. 5, 121–128 (2010).
pubmed: 19847467
doi: 10.1007/s12263-009-0154-1
Meadows, G. G. & Zhang, H. Effects of alcohol on tumor growth, metastasis, immune response, and host survival. Alcohol. Res. 37, 311–322 (2015).
pubmed: 26695753
pmcid: 4590626
World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective (American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007).
Ronksley, P. E., Brien, S. E., Turner, B. J., Mukamal, K. J. & Ghali, W. A. Association of alcohol consumption with selected cardiovascular disease outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 342, d671 (2011).
pubmed: 21343207
pmcid: 3043109
doi: 10.1136/bmj.d671
GBD 2016 Alcohol Collaborators. Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet 392, 1015–1035 (2018).
pmcid: 6148333
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2
Hopper, J. L. et al. Age-specific breast cancer risk by body mass index and familial risk: prospective family study cohort (ProF-SC). Breast Cancer Res. 20, 132 (2018).
pubmed: 30390716
pmcid: 6215632
doi: 10.1186/s13058-018-1056-1
Kehm, R. et al. Recreational physical activity and breast cancer risk: a cohort study of women selected for familial and genetic risk. Cancer Res. 80, 116–125 (2020).
pubmed: 31578201
doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-19-1847
Chlebowski, R. T. et al. Dietary modification and breast cancer mortality: long-term follow-up of the women’s health initiative randomized trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 38, 1419–1428 (2020).
pubmed: 32031879
doi: 10.1200/JCO.19.00435
pmcid: 7193750
Chlebowski, R. T. et al. Ethnicity and breast cancer: factors influencing differences in incidence and outcome. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 97, 439–448 (2005).
pubmed: 15770008
doi: 10.1093/jnci/dji064
Li, N. et al. Global burden of breast cancer and attributable risk factors in 195 countries and territories, from 1990 to 2017: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. J. Hematol. Oncol. 12, 140 (2019).
pubmed: 31864424
pmcid: 6925497
doi: 10.1186/s13045-019-0828-0
Li, C. I., Malone, K. E. & Daling, J. R. Differences in breast cancer hormone receptor status and histology by race and ethnicity among women 50 years of age and older. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11, 601–607 (2002).
pubmed: 12101106
Millikan, R. C. et al. Epidemiology of basal-like breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 109, 123–139 (2008).
pubmed: 17578664
doi: 10.1007/s10549-007-9632-6
Pharoah, P. & Ponder, B. in Genes and Common Diseases: Genetics in Modern Medicine (eds A. Wright & N. Hastie) 224–232 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).
Banegas, M. P. et al. Projecting individualized absolute invasive breast cancer risk in US Hispanic women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 109, djw215 (2017).
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djw215
Gail, M. H. et al. Projecting individualized absolute invasive breast cancer risk in African American women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 99, 1782–1792 (2007).
pubmed: 18042936
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djm223
Matsuno, R. K. et al. Projecting individualized absolute invasive breast cancer risk in Asian and Pacific Islander American women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 103, 951–961 (2011).
pubmed: 21562243
pmcid: 3119648
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djr154
Cintolo-Gonzalez, J. A. et al. Breast cancer risk models: a comprehensive overview of existing models, validation, and clinical applications. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 164, 263–284 (2017).
pubmed: 28444533
doi: 10.1007/s10549-017-4247-z
Antoniou, A. C. et al. A comprehensive model for familial breast cancer incorporating BRCA1, BRCA2 and other genes. Br. J. Cancer 86, 76–83 (2002).
pubmed: 11857015
pmcid: 2746531
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600008
Antoniou, A. C., Pharoah, P. P., Smith, P. & Easton, D. F. The BOADICEA model of genetic susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancer. Br. J. Cancer 91, 1580–1590 (2004).
pubmed: 15381934
pmcid: 2409934
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602175
Berry, D. A., Parmigiani, G., Sanchez, J., Schildkraut, J. & Winer, E. Probability of carrying a mutation of breast-ovarian cancer gene BRCA1 based on family history. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 89, 227–238 (1997).
pubmed: 9017003
doi: 10.1093/jnci/89.3.227
Gail, M. H. et al. Projecting individualized probabilities of developing breast cancer for white females who are being examined annually. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 81, 1879–1886 (1989).
pubmed: 2593165
doi: 10.1093/jnci/81.24.1879
Parmigiani, G., Berry, D. & Aguilar, O. Determining carrier probabilities for breast cancer-susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 62, 145–158 (1998).
pubmed: 9443863
pmcid: 1376797
doi: 10.1086/301670
Rosner, B. & Colditz, G. A. Nurses’ Health Study: log-incidence mathematical model of breast cancer incidence. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 88, 359–364 (1996).
pubmed: 8609645
doi: 10.1093/jnci/88.6.359
Terry, M. B. et al. 10-Year performance of four models of breast cancer risk: a validation study. Lancet Oncol. 20, 504–517 (2019). This study uses data from a large international prospective cohort study to validate commonly used breast cancer risk prediction models and shows that models that include multigenerational family cancer history, such as IBIS and BOADICEA, perform best, even for women at average risk.
pubmed: 30799262
doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(18)30902-1
Tice, J. A. et al. Using clinical factors and mammographic breast density to estimate breast cancer risk: development and validation of a new predictive model. Ann. Intern. Med. 148, 337–347 (2008).
pubmed: 18316752
pmcid: 2674327
doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-148-5-200803040-00004
Tyrer, J., Duffy, S. W. & Cuzick, J. A breast cancer prediction model incorporating familial and personal risk factors. Stat. Med. 23, 1111–1130 (2004).
pubmed: 15057881
doi: 10.1002/sim.1668
Petracci, E. et al. Risk factor modification and projections of absolute breast cancer risk. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 103, 1037–1048 (2011).
pubmed: 21705679
pmcid: 3131219
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djr172
Gail, M. H., Anderson, W. F., Garcia-Closas, M. & Sherman, M. E. Absolute risk models for subtypes of breast cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 99, 1657–1659 (2007).
pubmed: 18000214
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djm228
Colditz, G. A. & Rosner, B. Cumulative risk of breast cancer to age 70 years according to risk factor status: data from the Nurses’ Health Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 152, 950–964 (2000).
pubmed: 11092437
doi: 10.1093/aje/152.10.950
Brentnall, A. R., Cuzick, J., Buist, D. S. M. & Bowles, E. J. A. Long-term accuracy of breast cancer risk assessment combining classic risk factors and breast density. JAMA Oncol. 4, e180174 (2018).
pubmed: 29621362
pmcid: 6143016
doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2018.0174
Bodian, C. A., Perzin, K. H. & Lattes, R. Lobular neoplasia. Long term risk of breast cancer and relation to other factors. Cancer 78, 1024–1034 (1996).
pubmed: 8780540
doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19960901)78:5<1024::AID-CNCR12>3.0.CO;2-4
Claus, E. B., Risch, N. & Thompson, W. D. Autosomal dominant inheritance of early-onset breast cancer. Implications for risk prediction. Cancer 73, 643–651 (1994).
pubmed: 8299086
doi: 10.1002/1097-0142(19940201)73:3<643::AID-CNCR2820730323>3.0.CO;2-5
Amir, E. et al. Evaluation of breast cancer risk assessment packages in the family history evaluation and screening programme. J. Med. Genet. 40, 807–814 (2003).
pubmed: 14627668
pmcid: 1735317
doi: 10.1136/jmg.40.11.807
Brentnall, A. R. et al. A case–control evaluation of 143 single nucleotide polymorphisms for breast cancer risk stratification with classical factors and mammographic density. Int. J. Cancer 146, 2122–2129 (2020).
pubmed: 31251818
doi: 10.1002/ijc.32541
Quante, A. S., Whittemore, A. S., Shriver, T., Strauch, K. & Terry, M. B. Breast cancer risk assessment across the risk continuum: genetic and nongenetic risk factors contributing to differential model performance. Breast Cancer Res. 14, R144 (2012).
pubmed: 23127309
pmcid: 4053132
doi: 10.1186/bcr3352
van Veen, E. M. et al. Use of single-nucleotide polymorphisms and mammographic density plus classic risk factors for breast cancer risk prediction. JAMA Oncol. 4, 476–482 (2018).
pubmed: 29346471
pmcid: 5885189
doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2017.4881
Cuzick, J. et al. Impact of a panel of 88 single nucleotide polymorphisms on the risk of breast cancer in high-risk women: results from two randomized tamoxifen prevention trials. J. Clin. Oncol. 35, 743–750 (2017).
pubmed: 28029312
doi: 10.1200/JCO.2016.69.8944
Steyerberg, E. W. et al. Assessing the performance of prediction models: a framework for traditional and novel measures. Epidemiology 21, 128–138 (2010).
pubmed: 20010215
doi: 10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181c30fb2
pmcid: 3575184
Louro, J. et al. A systematic review and quality assessment of individualised breast cancer risk prediction models. Br. J. Cancer 121, 76–85 (2019).
pubmed: 31114019
doi: 10.1038/s41416-019-0476-8
pmcid: 6738106
Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group. Sex hormones and risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women: a collaborative reanalysis of individual participant data from seven prospective studies. Lancet Oncol. 14, 1009–1019 (2013).
pmcid: 4056766
doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70301-2
Terry, M. B., McDonald, J. A., Wu, H. C., Eng, S. & Santella, R. M. Epigenetic biomarkers of breast cancer risk: across the breast cancer prevention continuum. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 882, 33–68 (2016).
pubmed: 26987530
pmcid: 5305320
doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-22909-6_2
Machella, N. et al. Double-strand breaks repair in lymphoblastoid cell lines from sisters discordant for breast cancer from the New York site of the BCFR. Carcinogenesis 29, 1367–1372 (2008).
pubmed: 18566018
doi: 10.1093/carcin/bgn140
pmcid: 2899852
Phillips, K. A. et al. Transitioning to routine breast cancer risk assessment and management in primary care: what can we learn from cardiovascular disease? Aust. J. Prim. Health 22, 255–261 (2016).
pubmed: 25705982
doi: 10.1071/PY14156
Collins, I. M. et al. iPrevent®: a tailored, web-based, decision support tool for breast cancer risk assessment and management. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 156, 171–182 (2016).
pubmed: 26909793
pmcid: 4788692
doi: 10.1007/s10549-016-3726-y
Phillips, K. A. et al. Accuracy of estimates from the iPrevent breast cancer risk assessment and risk management tool. JNCI – Cancer Spec. 3, pkz066 (2019).
doi: 10.1093/jncics/pkz066
Lo, L. L. et al. The iPrevent online breast cancer risk assessment and risk management tool: usability and acceptability testing. JMIR Form. Res. 2, e24 (2018).
pubmed: 30684421
pmcid: 6334700
doi: 10.2196/formative.9935
Keogh, L. A. et al. Consumer and clinician perspectives on personalising breast cancer prevention information. Breast 43, 39–47 (2019).
pubmed: 30445378
doi: 10.1016/j.breast.2018.11.002
DeSantis, C. E. et al. Breast cancer statistics, 2019. CA Cancer J. Clin. 69, 438–451 (2019).
pubmed: 31577379
doi: 10.3322/caac.21583
National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Breast cancer risk reduction. NCCN https://www2.tri-kobe.org/nccn/guideline/breast/english/breast_risk.pdf (2019).
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Familial breast cancer: Classification and care of people at risk of familial breast cancer and management of breast cancer and related risks in people with a family history of breast cancer. NICE https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg164 (2020).
Visvanathan, K. et al. Use of endocrine therapy for breast cancer risk reduction: ASCO clinical practice guideline update. J. Clin. Oncol. 37, 3152–3165 (2019).
pubmed: 31479306
doi: 10.1200/JCO.19.01472
Li, X. et al. Effectiveness of prophylactic surgeries in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Clin. Cancer Res. 22, 3971–3981 (2016).
pubmed: 26979395
doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-15-1465
Hartmann, L. C. et al. Efficacy of bilateral prophylactic mastectomy in women with a family history of breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 77–84 (1999).
pubmed: 9887158
doi: 10.1056/NEJM199901143400201
Carbine, N. E., Lostumbo, L., Wallace, J. & Ko, H. Risk-reducing mastectomy for the prevention of primary breast cancer. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 4, CD002748 (2018).
pubmed: 29620792
Jakub, J. W. et al. Oncologic safety of prophylactic nipple-sparing mastectomy in a population with BRCA mutations: a multi-institutional study. JAMA Surg. 153, 123–129 (2018).
pubmed: 28903167
doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2017.3422
Metcalfe, K. et al. International trends in the uptake of cancer risk reduction strategies in women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. Br. J. Cancer 121, 15–21 (2019).
pubmed: 30971774
pmcid: 6738089
doi: 10.1038/s41416-019-0446-1
Rebbeck, T. R., Kauff, N. D. & Domchek, S. M. Meta-analysis of risk reduction estimates associated with risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 101, 80–87 (2009).
pubmed: 19141781
pmcid: 2639318
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djn442
Heemskerk-Gerritsen, B. A. et al. Breast cancer risk after salpingo-oophorectomy in healthy BRCA1/2 mutation carriers: revisiting the evidence for risk reduction. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 107, djv033 (2015).
pubmed: 25788320
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djv033
Terry, M. B. et al. Risk-reducing oophorectomy and breast cancer risk across the spectrum of familial risk. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 111, 331–334 (2019).
pubmed: 30496449
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djy182
Kotsopoulos, J. et al. Bilateral oophorectomy and breast cancer risk in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 109, djw177 (2017).
Mai, P. L. et al. Risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy and breast cancer risk reduction in the Gynecologic Oncology Group Protocol-0199 (GOG-0199). JNCI Cancer Spectr. 4, pkz075 (2019).
pubmed: 32337492
pmcid: 7050151
doi: 10.1093/jncics/pkz075
Milne, R. L. & Antoniou, A. C. Modifiers of breast and ovarian cancer risks for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Endocr. Relat. Cancer 23, T69–T84 (2016).
pubmed: 27528622
doi: 10.1530/ERC-16-0277
Cuzick, J. et al. Selective oestrogen receptor modulators in prevention of breast cancer: an updated meta-analysis of individual participant data. Lancet 381, 1827–1834 (2013).
pubmed: 23639488
pmcid: 3671272
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60140-3
Cuzick, J. et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: extended long-term follow-up of the IBIS-I breast cancer prevention trial. Lancet Oncol. 16, 67–75 (2015). This paper describes the long-term follow-up of the IBIS-I trial participants who received 5 years of preventive tamoxifen and shows that the protection against breast cancer is maintained for at least 20 years.
pubmed: 25497694
pmcid: 4772450
doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(14)71171-4
Nelson, H. D., Smith, M. E., Griffin, J. C. & Fu, R. Use of medications to reduce risk for primary breast cancer: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann. Intern. Med. 158, 604–614 (2013).
pubmed: 23588749
doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-158-8-201304160-00005
Skandarajah, A. R. et al. Patient and medical barriers preclude uptake of tamoxifen preventative therapy in women with a strong family history. Breast 32, 93–97 (2017).
pubmed: 28107734
doi: 10.1016/j.breast.2017.01.002
Vogel, V. G. et al. Update of the national surgical adjuvant breast and bowel project study of tamoxifen and raloxifene (STAR) P-2 trial: preventing breast cancer. Cancer Prev. Res. 3, 696–706 (2010).
doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0076
Freedman, A. N. et al. Benefit/risk assessment for breast cancer chemoprevention with raloxifene or tamoxifen for women age 50 years or older. J. Clin. Oncol. 29, 2327–2333 (2011).
pubmed: 21537036
pmcid: 3107748
doi: 10.1200/JCO.2010.33.0258
Cuzick, J. et al. Use of anastrozole for breast cancer prevention (IBIS-II): long-term results of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 395, 117–122 (2020). This paper describes the long-term follow-up of a randomized controlled trial of anastrozole or placebo for breast cancer prevention and shows that 5 years of anastrozole confers at least 10 years of preventive benefit.
pubmed: 31839281
pmcid: 6961114
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32955-1
Cuzick, J. et al. Anastrozole for prevention of breast cancer in high-risk postmenopausal women (IBIS-II): an international, double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 383, 1041–1048 (2014).
pubmed: 24333009
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62292-8
Goss, P. E. et al. Exemestane for breast-cancer prevention in postmenopausal women. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 2381–2391 (2011).
pubmed: 21639806
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1103507
Noonan, S. et al. A survey among breast cancer specialists on the low uptake of therapeutic prevention with tamoxifen or raloxifene. Cancer Prev. Res. 11, 38–43 (2018).
doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-17-0162
Collins, I. M. et al. Preventing breast and ovarian cancers in high-risk BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Med. J. Aust. 199, 680–683 (2013).
pubmed: 24237098
doi: 10.5694/mja13.10848
Collins, I. M. et al. Assessing and managing breast cancer risk: clinicians’ current practice and future needs. Breast 23, 644–650 (2014).
pubmed: 24998452
doi: 10.1016/j.breast.2014.06.014
Keogh, L. A., Hopper, J. L., Rosenthal, D. & Phillips, K. A. Australian clinicians and chemoprevention for women at high familial risk for breast cancer. Hered. Cancer Clin. Pract. 7, 9 (2009).
pubmed: 19409108
pmcid: 2687421
doi: 10.1186/1897-4287-7-9
Smith, S. G. et al. Prescribing tamoxifen in primary care for the prevention of breast cancer: a national online survey of GPs’ attitudes. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 67, e414–e427 (2017).
pubmed: 28193617
pmcid: 5442957
doi: 10.3399/bjgp17X689377
Smith, S. G. et al. Factors affecting uptake and adherence to breast cancer chemoprevention: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Oncol. 27, 575–590 (2016). This meta-analysis shows that uptake of therapeutic agents for the prevention of breast cancer is low and persistent long-term use is often insufficient, meaning that women do not experience the full preventive effect.
pubmed: 26646754
doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdv590
Fisher, B. et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 study. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 90, 1371–1388 (1998).
pubmed: 9747868
doi: 10.1093/jnci/90.18.1371
Donnelly, L. S. et al. Uptake of tamoxifen in consecutive premenopausal women under surveillance in a high-risk breast cancer clinic. Br. J. Cancer 110, 1681–1687 (2014).
pubmed: 24594998
pmcid: 3974072
doi: 10.1038/bjc.2014.109
Bober, S. L., Hoke, L. A., Duda, R. B., Regan, M. M. & Tung, N. M. Decision-making about tamoxifen in women at high risk for breast cancer: clinical and psychological factors. J. Clin. Oncol. 22, 4951–4957 (2004).
pubmed: 15598980
doi: 10.1200/JCO.2004.05.192
Cuzick, J. et al. First results from the International Breast Cancer Intervention Study (IBIS-I): a randomised prevention trial. Lancet 360, 817–824 (2002).
pubmed: 12243915
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09962-2
Heisey, R., Pimlott, N., Clemons, M., Cummings, S. & Drummond, N. Women’s views on chemoprevention of breast cancer: qualitative study. Can. Fam. Physician 52, 624–625 (2006).
pubmed: 17327893
pmcid: 1531726
Kuderer, N. M. & Peppercorn, J. CYP2D6 testing in breast cancer: ready for prime time? Oncology 23, 1223–1232 (2009).
pubmed: 20120834
DeCensi, A. et al. A randomized trial of low-dose tamoxifen on breast cancer proliferation and blood estrogenic biomarkers. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95, 779–790 (2003).
pubmed: 12783932
doi: 10.1093/jnci/95.11.779
DeCensi, A. et al. Randomized placebo controlled trial of low-dose tamoxifen to prevent local and contralateral recurrence in breast intraepithelial neoplasia. J. Clin. Oncol. 37, 1629–1637 (2019).
pubmed: 30973790
pmcid: 6601429
doi: 10.1200/JCO.18.01779
US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00952731 (2009).
Rojas, L. B. & Gomes, M. B. Metformin: an old but still the best treatment for type 2 diabetes. Diabetol. Metab. Syndr. 5, 6 (2013).
pubmed: 23415113
pmcid: 3607889
doi: 10.1186/1758-5996-5-6
Bodmer, M., Meier, C., Krahenbuhl, S., Jick, S. S. & Meier, C. R. Long-term metformin use is associated with decreased risk of breast cancer. Diabetes Care 33, 1304–1308 (2010).
pubmed: 20299480
pmcid: 2875444
doi: 10.2337/dc09-1791
EU Clinical Trials Register. ClinicalTrialsRegister.eu https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=eudract_number:2009-009921-28 (2010).
Boissier, S. et al. Bisphosphonates inhibit breast and prostate carcinoma cell invasion, an early event in the formation of bone metastases. Cancer Res. 60, 2949–2954 (2000).
pubmed: 10850442
Chlebowski, R. T. et al. Oral bisphosphonate use and breast cancer incidence in postmenopausal women. J. Clin. Oncol. 28, 3582–3590 (2010).
pubmed: 20567009
pmcid: 2917313
doi: 10.1200/JCO.2010.28.2095
Daubine, F., Le Gall, C., Gasser, J., Green, J. & Clezardin, P. Antitumor effects of clinical dosing regimens of bisphosphonates in experimental breast cancer bone metastasis. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 99, 322–330 (2007).
pubmed: 17312309
doi: 10.1093/jnci/djk054
van der Pluijm, G. et al. Bisphosphonates inhibit the adhesion of breast cancer cells to bone matrices in vitro. J. Clin. Invest. 98, 698–705 (1996).
pubmed: 8698861
pmcid: 507479
doi: 10.1172/JCI118841
Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Adjuvant bisphosphonate treatment in early breast cancer: meta-analyses of individual patient data from randomised trials. Lancet 386, 1353–1361 (2015).
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60908-4
Dhesy-Thind, S. et al. Use of adjuvant bisphosphonates and other bone-modifying agents in breast cancer: a Cancer Care Ontario and American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline. J. Clin. Oncol. 35, 2062–2081 (2017).
pubmed: 28618241
doi: 10.1200/JCO.2016.70.7257
Gnant, M., Harbeck, N. & St. Thomssen, C. Gallen/Vienna 2017: a brief summary of the consensus discussion about escalation and de-escalation of primary breast cancer treatment. Breast Care (Basel) 12, 102–107 (2017).
doi: 10.1159/000475698
Vestergaard, P., Fischer, L., Mele, M., Mosekilde, L. & Christiansen, P. Use of bisphosphonates and risk of breast cancer. Calcif. Tissue Int. 88, 255–262 (2011).
pubmed: 21253712
doi: 10.1007/s00223-011-9463-7
US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02781805 (2016).
US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03323658 (2017).
EU Clinical Trials Register. ClinicalTrialsRegister.eu https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2009-010260-41 (2009).
Moon, R. C. et al. N-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)retinamide, a new retinoid for prevention of breast cancer in the rat. Cancer Res. 39, 1339–1346 (1979).
pubmed: 421218
Veronesi, U. et al. Randomized trial of fenretinide to prevent second breast malignancy in women with early breast cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 91, 1847–1856 (1999).
pubmed: 10547391
doi: 10.1093/jnci/91.21.1847
Xu, L. et al. Tamoxifen and risk of contralateral breast cancer among women with inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer 22, 327–334 (2015).
pubmed: 26022977
doi: 10.1007/s12282-015-0619-6
Phillips, K. A. et al. Tamoxifen and risk of contralateral breast cancer for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J. Clin. Oncol. 31, 3091–3099 (2013). This large international study of pooled cohort data shows that tamoxifen use for first breast cancer is associated with a marked reduction in contralateral breast cancer risk in both BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers.
pubmed: 23918944
pmcid: 3753701
doi: 10.1200/JCO.2012.47.8313
Nolan, E. et al. RANK ligand as a potential target for breast cancer prevention in BRCA1-mutation carriers. Nat. Med. 22, 933–939 (2016). This study identifies RANK
pubmed: 27322743
doi: 10.1038/nm.4118
Nolan, E., Lindeman, G. J. & Visvader, J. E. Out-RANKing BRCA1 in mutation carriers. Cancer Res. 77, 595–600 (2017).
pubmed: 28104682
doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-16-2025
EU Clinical Trials Register. ClinicalTrialsRegister.eu https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2017-002505-35/AT (2018).
Poole, A. J. et al. Prevention of Brca1-mediated mammary tumorigenesis in mice by a progesterone antagonist. Science 314, 1467–1470 (2006).
pubmed: 17138902
doi: 10.1126/science.1130471
US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02408770 (2015).
Lu, L., Shi, L., Zeng, J. & Wen, Z. Aspirin as a potential modality for the chemoprevention of breast cancer: a dose–response meta-analysis of cohort studies from 857,831 participants. Oncotarget 8, 40389–40401 (2017).
pubmed: 28418881
pmcid: 5522308
doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.16315
de Pedro, M. et al. Effect of COX-2 inhibitors and other non-steroidal inflammatory drugs on breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 149, 525–536 (2015).
pubmed: 25589172
doi: 10.1007/s10549-015-3267-9
Kehm, R. D. et al. Regular use of aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and breast cancer risk for women at familial or genetic risk: a cohort study. Breast Cancer Res. 21, 52 (2019).
pubmed: 30999962
pmcid: 6471793
doi: 10.1186/s13058-019-1135-y
Gierach, G. L. et al. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and breast cancer risk in the National Institutes of Health–AARP Diet and Health Study. Breast Cancer Res. 10, R38 (2008).
pubmed: 18447943
pmcid: 2397540
doi: 10.1186/bcr2089
Marshall, S. F. et al. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use and breast cancer risk by stage and hormone receptor status. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 97, 805–812 (2005).
pubmed: 15928301
doi: 10.1093/jnci/dji140
Terry, M. B. et al. Association of frequency and duration of aspirin use and hormone receptor status with breast cancer risk. JAMA 291, 2433–2440 (2004).
pubmed: 15161893
doi: 10.1001/jama.291.20.2433
Unsworth, A., Anderson, R. & Britt, K. Stromal fibroblasts and the immune microenvironment: partners in mammary gland biology and pathology? J. Mammary Gland. Biol. Neoplasia 19, 169–182 (2014).
pubmed: 24984900
doi: 10.1007/s10911-014-9326-8
Visvader, J. E. & Stingl, J. Mammary stem cells and the differentiation hierarchy: current status and perspectives. Genes Dev. 28, 1143–1158 (2014).
pubmed: 24888586
pmcid: 4052761
doi: 10.1101/gad.242511.114
Gil Del Alcazar, C. R. et al. Immune escape in breast cancer during in situ to invasive carcinoma transition. Cancer Discov. 7, 1098–1115 (2017). This paper assesses normal breast, DCIS and invasive ductal carcinomas to reveal co-evolution of cancer cells and the immune microenvironment.
pubmed: 28652380
pmcid: 5628128
doi: 10.1158/2159-8290.CD-17-0222
Cossart, Y. E. The rise and fall of infectious diseases: Australian perspectives, 1914–2014. Med. J. Aust. 201, S11–S14 (2014).
pubmed: 25047768
pmcid: 7168456
doi: 10.5694/mja14.00112
Harvard University. BayesMendel R Package https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/bayesmendel/brcapro (2020).
US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00078832 (2004).
US National Library of Medicine. ClinicalTrials.gov https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03063619 (2017).
EU Clinical Trials Register. ClinicalTrialsRegister.eu https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=2016-001087-11 (2016).
Australia NewZealand Clinical Trials registry. ANZCTR https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?ACTRN=12614000694617 (2014).
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 347, 1713–1727 (1996). This study uses a large data set of epidemiological data spanning 25 countries to show that women who are currently taking the OCP (or those still within 10 years of stopping) are at an increased risk of breast cancer.
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90806-5
Morch, L. S. et al. Contemporary hormonal contraception and the risk of breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 377, 2228–2239 (2017).
pubmed: 29211679
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1700732
Australia Institute of Health and Welfare. AIHW https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/overweight-obesity/overweight-and-obesity-an-interactive-insight/contents/prevalence (2019).
Provenzano, P. P. et al. Collagen density promotes mammary tumor initiation and progression. BMC Med. 6, 11 (2008).
pubmed: 18442412
pmcid: 2386807
doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-6-11
Alowami, S., Troup, S., Al-Haddad, S., Kirkpatrick, I. & Watson, P. H. Mammographic density is related to stroma and stromal proteoglycan expression. Breast Cancer Res. 5, R129–R135 (2003).
pubmed: 12927043
pmcid: 314426
doi: 10.1186/bcr622
Cho, A., Howell, V. M. & Colvin, E. K. The extracellular matrix in epithelial ovarian cancer—a piece of a puzzle. Front. Oncol. 5, 245 (2015).
pubmed: 26579497
pmcid: 4629462
doi: 10.3389/fonc.2015.00245
Provenzano, P. P. & Keely, P. J. Mechanical signaling through the cytoskeleton regulates cell proliferation by coordinated focal adhesion and Rho GTPase signaling. J. Cell Sci. 124, 1195–1205 (2011).
pubmed: 21444750
pmcid: 3065381
doi: 10.1242/jcs.067009
Lisanti, M. P. et al. JNK1 stress signaling is hyper-activated in high breast density and the tumor stroma: connecting fibrosis, inflammation, and stemness for cancer prevention. Cell Cycle 13, 580–599 (2014).
pubmed: 24434780
doi: 10.4161/cc.27379
Dushyanthen, S. et al. Relevance of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in breast cancer. BMC Med. 13, 202 (2015).
pubmed: 26300242
pmcid: 4547422
doi: 10.1186/s12916-015-0431-3
Tower, H., Ruppert, M. & Britt, K. The immune microenvironment of breast cancer progression. Cancers 11, 1375 (2019).
pmcid: 6769749
doi: 10.3390/cancers11091375
Simon, T. & Bromberg, J. S. Regulation of the immune system by laminins. Trends Immunol. 38, 858–871 (2017).
pubmed: 28684207
pmcid: 5669817
doi: 10.1016/j.it.2017.06.002
Lu, P., Takai, K., Weaver, V. M. & Werb, Z. Extracellular matrix degradation and remodeling in development and disease. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 3, a005058 (2011).
pubmed: 21917992
pmcid: 3225943
doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a005058
Hallmann, R. et al. The regulation of immune cell trafficking by the extracellular matrix. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 36, 54–61 (2015).
pubmed: 26189064
doi: 10.1016/j.ceb.2015.06.006
Kajita, M. & Fujita, Y. EDAC: epithelial defence against cancer-cell competition between normal and transformed epithelial cells in mammals. J. Biochem. 158, 15–23 (2015).
pubmed: 25991731
doi: 10.1093/jb/mvv050
Hunter, D. J. et al. Oral contraceptive use and breast cancer: a prospective study of young women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 19, 2496–2502 (2010).
pubmed: 20802021
pmcid: 3055790
doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-10-0747
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Lancet 350, 1047–1059 (1997).
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)08233-0
Althuis, M. D. et al. Hormonal content and potency of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk among young women. Br. J. Cancer 88, 50–57 (2003).
pubmed: 12556959
pmcid: 2376784
doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6600691
Beral, V., Million Women Study Collaborators. Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet 362, 419–427 (2003).
pubmed: 12927427
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14596-5
Jones, J., Mosher, W. & Daniels, K. Current contraceptive use in the United States, 2006–2010, and changes in patterns of use since 1995. Natl Health Stat Report 60, 1–25 (2012).
Daniels, K. & Abma, J. C. Current contraceptive status among women aged 15–49: United States, 2015–2017 CDC https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db327-h.pdf (2018). US statistics indicate that as much as 5% of OCP users are older premenopausal women aged 40–49 years.
Rossouw, J. E. et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288, 321–333 (2002).
pubmed: 12117397
doi: 10.1001/jama.288.3.321
Chlebowski, R. T. et al. Breast cancer after use of estrogen plus progestin and estrogen alone: analyses of data from 2 Women’s Health Initiative randomized clinical trials. JAMA Oncol. 1, 296–305 (2015).
pubmed: 26181174
pmcid: 6871651
doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2015.0494
Chlebowski, R. T. et al. Influence of estrogen plus progestin on breast cancer and mammography in healthy postmenopausal women: the Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trial. JAMA 289, 3243–3253 (2003).
pubmed: 12824205
doi: 10.1001/jama.289.24.3243
Chlebowski, R. T. et al. Long-term influence of estrogen plus progestin and estrogen alone use on breast cancer incidence: The Women's Health Initiative randomized trials [abstract]. Cancer Res. 80, GS5-00 (2020).