Effects of Different Doses of Remote Ischemic Preconditioning on Kidney Damage Among Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery: A Single-Center Mechanistic Randomized Controlled Trial.

We have previously shown that remote ischemic preconditioning reduces acute kidney injury (acute kidney injury) in high-risk patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass and that the protective effect is confined to patients who exhibit an increased urinary tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7 in response to remote ischemic preconditioning. The purpose of this study was to determine the optimal intensity of remote ischemic preconditioning to induce required [tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2]*[insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7] changes and further explore mechanisms of remote ischemic preconditioning. Observational and randomized controlled, double-blind clinical trial. University Hospital of Muenster, Germany. High-risk patients undergoing cardiac surgery as defined by the Cleveland Clinic Foundation Score. In the interventional part, patients were randomized to receive either one of four different remote ischemic preconditioning doses (3 × 5 min, 3 × 7 min, 3 × 10 min remote ischemic preconditioning, or 3 × 5 min remote ischemic preconditioning + 2 × 10 min remote ischemic preconditioning in nonresponders) or sham-remote ischemic preconditioning (control). The primary endpoint of the interventional part was change in urinary [tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2]*[insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7] between pre- and postintervention. To examine secondary objectives including acute kidney injury incidence, we included an observational cohort. A total of 180 patients were included in the trial (n = 80 observational and n = 100 randomized controlled part [20 patients/group]). The mean age was 69.3 years (10.5 yr), 119 were men (66.1%). Absolute changes in [tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2]*[insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7] were significantly higher in all remote ischemic preconditioning groups when compared with controls (p < 0.01). Although we did not observe a dose-response relationship on absolute changes in [tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2]*[insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7] across the four different remote ischemic preconditioning groups, in the 15 patients failing to respond to the lowest dose, nine (60%) responded to a subsequent treatment at a higher intensity. Compared with controls, fewer patients receiving remote ischemic preconditioning developed acute kidney injury within 72 hours after surgery as defined by both Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes criteria (30/80 [37.5%] vs 61/100 [61.0%]; p = 0.003). All doses of remote ischemic preconditioning significantly increased [tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2]*[insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7] and significantly decreased acute kidney injury compared with controls. High-dose remote ischemic preconditioning could stimulate [tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2]*[insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7] increases in patients refractory to low-dose remote ischemic preconditioning.