Cognitive and Social Cognitive Self-assessment in Autistic Adults.
Autism spectrum disorder
Introspective accuracy
Metacognition
Neurocognition
Self-assessment
Social cognition
Social functioning
Journal
Journal of autism and developmental disorders
ISSN: 1573-3432
Titre abrégé: J Autism Dev Disord
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 7904301
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Jul 2021
Jul 2021
Historique:
pubmed:
21
9
2020
medline:
8
7
2021
entrez:
20
9
2020
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
An aspect of metacognition associated with broader functional abilities in several clinical conditions, but previously unexamined in autism, is self-assessment (i.e., the ability to accurately self-evaluate one's own performance). We compared self-assessment between 37 autistic adults without intellectual disability to 39 non-autistic (NA) controls on a series of three general cognitive and three social cognitive tasks. Whereas autistic adults and NA adults did not differ in their self-assessment accuracy on general cognitive tasks, they did on social cognitive tasks, with autistic adults demonstrating lower accuracy. The direction of their inaccuracy was variable (i.e., both over and underestimation), and self-assessment was largely unrelated to their level of social functioning. Over versus underestimation may have different functional implications, and warrants future investigation.
Identifiants
pubmed: 32951156
doi: 10.1007/s10803-020-04722-x
pii: 10.1007/s10803-020-04722-x
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
2354-2368Références
Ackerman, P. L., & Wolman, S. D. (2007). Determinants and validity of self-estimates of abilities and self-concept measures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.13.2.57 .
doi: 10.1037/1076-898X.13.2.57
pubmed: 18194049
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.108.4.441 .
doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.108.4.441
Amador, X. F., Flaum, M., Andreasen, N. C., Strauss, D. H., Yale, S. A., Clark, S. C., et al. (1994). Awareness of illness in schizophrenia and schizoaffective and mood disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950100074007 .
doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950100074007
pubmed: 7944872
American Psychiatric Association. (2014). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. DSM. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.744053
doi: 10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.744053
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8 .
doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8
pubmed: 2934210
Baron-Cohen, S., Jolliffe, T., Mortimore, C., & Robertson, M. (1997). Another advanced test of theory of mind: Evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01599.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01599.x
Bastiaansen, J. A., Thioux, M., Nanetti, L., Van Der Gaag, C., Ketelaars, C., Minderaa, R., et al. (2011). Age-related increase in inferior frontal gyrus activity and social functioning in autism spectrum disorder. Biological Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.11.007 .
doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.11.007
pubmed: 21310395
Benton, A. L., & Van Allen, M. W. (1968). Impairment in facial recognition in patients with cerebral disease. Cortex, 4(4), 344-IN1. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(68)80018-8 .
doi: 10.1016/s0010-9452(68)80018-8
Billstedt, E., Gillberg, C., & Gillberg, C. (2005). Autism after adolescence: Population-based 13- to 22-year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-3302-5 .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-005-3302-5
pubmed: 16119476
Birchwood, M., Smith, J., Cochrane, R., Wetton, S., & Copestake, S. (1990). The Social Functioning Scale. The development and validation of a new scale of social adjustment for use in family intervention programmes with schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 853–859.
doi: 10.1192/bjp.157.6.853
Bird, G., & Cook, R. (2013). Mixed emotions: The contribution of alexithymia to the emotional symptoms of autism. Translational Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2013.61 .
doi: 10.1038/tp.2013.61
pubmed: 23880881
pmcid: 3731793
Bowie, C. R., Twamley, E. W., Anderson, H., Halpern, B., Patterson, T. L., & Harvey, P. D. (2007). Self-assessment of functional status in schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.08.003 .
doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.08.003
pubmed: 17303168
pmcid: 2696336
Cage, E., Di Monaco, J., & Newell, V. (2018). Experiences of autism acceptance and mental health in autistic adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(2), 473–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3342-7 .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-017-3342-7
pubmed: 29071566
Carlson, E. N., & Kenny, D. A. (2012). Meta-accuracy: Do we know how others see us? In S. Vazire & T. D. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of self-knowledge (pp. 242–257). The Guilford Press.
Carruthers, P. (2009). Mindreading underlies metacognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x09000831 .
doi: 10.1017/s0140525x09000831
Chan, E. H. C., Kong, S. D. X., Park, S. H., Song, Y. J. C., Demetriou, E. A., Pepper, K. L., et al. (2019). Validation of the social functioning scale: Comparison and evaluation in early psychosis, autism spectrum disorder and social anxiety disorder. Psychiatry Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.03.037 .
doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.03.037
pubmed: 31629132
pmcid: 6561815
Christensen, K. J., Riley, B. E., Heffernan, K. A., Love, S. B., & McLaughlin Sta. Maria, M. E. (2003). Facial recognition test in the elderly: Norms, reliability and premorbid estimation. The Clinical Neuropsychologist. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.16.1.51.8332 .
doi: 10.1076/clin.16.1.51.8332
Cumming, G. (2012). Understanding the new statistics: Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and meta-analysis. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Duff, K., Hobson, V. L., Beglinger, L. J., & O’Bryant, S. E. (2010). Diagnostic accuracy of the RBANS in mild cognitive impairment: Limitations on assessing milder impairments. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acq045 .
doi: 10.1093/arclin/acq045
pubmed: 21183605
pmcid: 3104596
Eack, S. M., Mazefsky, C. A., & Minshew, N. J. (2015). Misinterpretation of facial expressions of emotion in verbal adults with autism spectrum disorder. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361314520755 .
doi: 10.1177/1362361314520755
pubmed: 24535689
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring. American Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1093/nq/CLVII.dec14.424-a .
doi: 10.1093/nq/CLVII.dec14.424-a
Freund, P. A., & Kasten, N. (2012). How smart do you think you are? A meta-analysis on the validity of self-estimates of cognitive ability. Psychological Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026556 .
doi: 10.1037/a0026556
pubmed: 22181852
Galbraith, S., Stat, M., & Marschner, I. C. (2002). Guidelines for the design of clinical trials with longitudinal outcomes. Controlled Clinical Trials. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-2456(02)00205-2 .
doi: 10.1016/S0197-2456(02)00205-2
pubmed: 12057878
Gilotty, L., Kenworthy, L., Sirian, L., Black, D. O., & Wagner, A. E. (2002). Adaptive skills and executive function in autism spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychology. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.4.241.13504 .
doi: 10.1076/chin.8.4.241.13504
pubmed: 12759821
Gold, J. M., Queern, C., Iannone, V. N., & Buchanan, R. W. (1999). Repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status as a screening test in schizophrenia, I: Sensitivity, reliability, and validity. American Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.12.1944 .
doi: 10.1176/ajp.156.12.1944
Gould, F., McGuire, L. S., Durand, D., Sabbag, S., Larrauri, C., Patterson, T. L., et al. (2015). Self-assessment in schizophrenia: Accuracy of evaluation of cognition and everyday functioning. Neuropsychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000175 .
doi: 10.1037/neu0000175
pubmed: 25643212
pmcid: 4522405
Grainger, C., Williams, D. M., & Lind, S. E. (2014). Metacognition, metamemory, and mindreading in high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036531 .
doi: 10.1037/a0036531
pubmed: 24955572
Grainger, C., Williams, D. M., & Lind, S. E. (2016). Metacognitive monitoring and control processes in children with autism spectrum disorder: Diminished judgement of confidence accuracy. Consciousness and Cognition. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.03.003 .
doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2016.03.003
pubmed: 26985883
Happé, F., & Frith, U. (1995). Theory of mind in autism. Learning and Cognition in Autism. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1286-2_10 .
doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1286-2_10
Harvey, P. D., & Pinkham, A. (2015). Impaired self-assessment in schizophrenia: Why patients misjudge their cognition and functioning. Current Psychiatry, 14(4), 53–59.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando: Academic Press.
Howlin, P., Goode, S., Hutton, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines., 45, 212–229.
doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00215.x
Hull, L., Mandy, W., & Petrides, K. V. (2017a). Behavioural and cognitive sex/gender differences in autism spectrum condition and typically developing males and females. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316669087 .
doi: 10.1177/1362361316669087
pubmed: 28749232
Hull, L., Petrides, K. V., Allison, C., Smith, P., Baron-Cohen, S., Lai, M. C., et al. (2017b). “Putting on my best normal”: Social camouflaging in adults with autism spectrum conditions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(8), 2519–2534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5 .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5
pubmed: 28527095
pmcid: 5509825
Keefe, R. S. E., Poe, M., Walker, T. M., Kang, J. W., & Harvey, P. D. (2006). The schizophrenia cognition rating scale: An interview-based assessment and its relationship to cognition, real-world functioning, and functional capacity. American Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.426 .
doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.426
Kohler, C. G., Bilker, W., Hagendoorn, M., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2000). Emotion recognition deficit in schizophrenia: Association with symptomatology and cognition. Biological Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00847-7 .
doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00847-7
pubmed: 10903409
Köther, U., Veckenstedt, R., Vitzthum, F., Roesch-Ely, D., Pfueller, U., Scheu, F., et al. (2012). “Don’t give me that look”—Overconfidence in false mental state perception in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.03.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.03.004
pubmed: 22920792
Leary, M. R. (1996). Social psychology series. Self-presentation: Impression management and interpersonal behavior. Boulder: Westview Press.
Leifker, F. R., Patterson, T. L., Heaton, R. K., & Harvey, P. D. (2011). Validating measures of real-world outcome: The results of the VALERO expert survey and RAND panel. Schizophrenia Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbp044 .
doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp044
pubmed: 19525354
Leung, R. C., Vogan, V. M., Powell, T. L., Anagnostou, E., & Taylor, M. J. (2016). The role of executive functions in social impairment in autism spectrum disorder. Child Neuropsychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1005066 .
doi: 10.1080/09297049.2015.1005066
pubmed: 25731979
Levin, H. S., Hamsher, K. S., & Benton, A. L. (1975). A short form of the test of facial recognition for clinical use. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9923946 .
doi: 10.1080/00223980.1975.9923946
Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., Dilavore, P. C., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592401947 .
doi: 10.1023/A:1005592401947
pubmed: 11098874
Mathersul, D., McDonald, S., & Rushby, J. A. (2013). Understanding advanced theory of mind and empathy in high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2013.809700 .
doi: 10.1080/13803395.2013.809700
pubmed: 23799244
Mazurek, M. O. (2014). Loneliness, friendship, and well-being in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312474121 .
doi: 10.1177/1362361312474121
pubmed: 24497627
pmcid: 4331245
McCrimmon, A. W., & Smith, A. D. (2013). Review of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of intelligence, (WASI-II). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282912467756 .
doi: 10.1177/0734282912467756
McDonald, S., Flanagan, S., Rollins, J., & Kinch, J. (2003). TASIT. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001199-200305000-00001 .
doi: 10.1097/00001199-200305000-00001
McDonald, S., Bornhofen, C., Shum, D., Long, E., Saunders, C., & Neulinger, K. (2006). Reliability and validity of the awareness of social inference test (TASIT): A clinical test of social perception. Disability and Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280600646185 .
doi: 10.1080/09638280600646185
pubmed: 17178616
McMahon, C. M., Henderson, H. A., Newell, L., Jaime, M., & Mundy, P. (2016). Metacognitive awareness of facial affect in higher-functioning children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2630-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2630-3
pubmed: 27465244
pmcid: 5494711
Morrison, K. E., Pinkham, A. E., Kelsven, S., Ludwig, K., Penn, D. L., & Sasson, N. J. (2019). Psychometric evaluation of social cognitive measures for adults with autism. Autism Research, 12(5), 766–778. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2084 .
doi: 10.1002/aur.2084
pubmed: 30770676
pmcid: 6499650
Neubauer, A., & Hofer, G. (2020). Self-estimates of abilities are a better reflection of individuals’ personality traits than of their abilities and are also strong predictors of professional interests. Personality and Individual Differences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109850 .
doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.109850
Orsmond, G. I., Krauss, M. W., & Seltzer, M. M. (2004). Peer relationships and social and recreational activities among adolescents and adults with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders., 34, 245–256.
doi: 10.1023/B:JADD.0000029547.96610.df
Paris, S. G., & Winograd, P. (1990). How metacognition can promote academic learning and instruction. In Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (Vol. 1, pp. 15–51). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc..
Pelphrey, K., Adolphs, R., & Morris, J. P. (2004). Neuroanatomical substrates of social cognition dysfunction in autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20040 .
doi: 10.1002/mrdd.20040
pubmed: 15666336
Philip, R. C. M., Whalley, H. C., Stanfield, A. C., Sprengelmeyer, R., Santos, I. M., Young, A. W., et al. (2010). Deficits in facial, body movement and vocal emotional processing in autism spectrum disorders. Psychological Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709992364 .
doi: 10.1017/S0033291709992364
pubmed: 20102666
Pinkham, A. E., Penn, D. L., Green, M. F., & Harvey, P. D. (2016). Social cognition psychometric evaluation: Results of the initial psychometric study. Schizophrenia Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbv056 .
doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbv056
pubmed: 26645375
pmcid: 5463852
Pishghadam, R., & Khajavy, G. H. (2013). Intelligence and metacognition as predictors of foreign language achievement: A structural equation modeling approach. Learning and Individual Differences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.004
Powell, S., Plamondon, R., & Retzlaff, P. (2002). Screening cognitive abilities in adults with developmental disabilities: Correlations of the K-BIT, PPVT-3, WRAT-3, and CVLT. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016084604822 .
doi: 10.1023/A:1016084604822
Randolph, C., Tierney, M. C., Mohr, E., & Chase, T. N. (1998). The repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status (RBANS). Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology., 20, 310–319.
doi: 10.1076/jcen.20.3.310.823
Richard Ferraro, F., Hansen, R., & Deling, L. (2017). Repeatable battery for the assessment of neurological status (RBANS) performance in non-clinical individuals with high levels of autistic traits. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9738-x .
doi: 10.1007/s12144-017-9738-x
Sabbag, S., Twamley, E. M., Vella, L., Heaton, R. K., Patterson, T. L., & Harvey, P. D. (2011). Assessing everyday functioning in schizophrenia: Not all informants seem equally informative. Schizophrenia Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.05.003 .
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.05.003
pubmed: 21620682
pmcid: 3159808
Sachse, M., Schlitt, S., Hainz, D., Ciaramidaro, A., Walter, H., Poustka, F., et al. (2014). Facial emotion recognition in paranoid schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. Schizophrenia Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.08.030 .
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.08.030
pubmed: 25278104
Sasson, N. J. (2006). The development of face processing in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0076-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0076-3
pubmed: 16572261
Sasson, N. J., Pinkham, A. E., Carpenter, K. L. H., & Belger, A. (2011). The benefit of directly comparing autism and schizophrenia for revealing mechanisms of social cognitive impairment. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11689-010-9068-x .
doi: 10.1007/s11689-010-9068-x
pubmed: 21484194
Sasson, N. J., Nowlin, R. B., & Pinkham, A. E. (2013). Social cognition, social skill, and the broad autism phenotype. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312455704 .
doi: 10.1177/1362361312455704
pubmed: 22987889
Sasson, N. J., Faso, D. J., Nugent, J., Lovell, S., Kennedy, D. P., & Grossman, R. B. (2017). Neurotypical peers are less willing to interact with those with autism based on thin slice judgments. Scientific Reports, 7, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40700 .
doi: 10.1038/srep40700
Sawyer, A. C. P., Williamson, P., & Young, R. (2014). Metacognitive processes in emotion recognition: Are they different in adults with Asperger’s disorder? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1999-0 .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-013-1999-0
pubmed: 24272525
Schraw, G. (2013). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2243-8_1 .
doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-2243-8_1
Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1994.1033 .
doi: 10.1006/ceps.1994.1033
Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Abbeduto, L., & Greenberg, J. S. (2004). Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10(4), 234–247. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20038 .
doi: 10.1002/mrdd.20038
pubmed: 15666341
Silberstein, J. M., Pinkham, A. E., Penn, D. L., & Harvey, P. D. (2018). Self-assessment of social cognitive ability in schizophrenia: Association with social cognitive test performance, informant assessments of social cognitive ability, and everyday outcomes. Schizophrenia Research, 199, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.04.015 .
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2018.04.015
pubmed: 29673732
pmcid: 6151277
Veenman, M. V. J., Wilhelm, P., & Beishuizen, J. J. (2004). The relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills from a developmental perspective. Learning and Instruction. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2003.10.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2003.10.004
Veenman, M. V. J., Kok, R., & Blöte, A. W. (2005). The relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills in early adolescence. Instructional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-004-2274-8 .
doi: 10.1007/s11251-004-2274-8
Veenman, M. V. J., & Spaans, M. A. (2005). Relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills: Age and task differences. Learning and Individual Differences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2004.12.001 .
doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2004.12.001
Verhoeven, E. W. M., Marijnissen, N., Berger, H. J. C., Oudshoorn, J., Van Der Sijde, A., & Teunisse, J. P. (2012). Brief report: Relationship between self-awareness of real-world behavior and treatment outcome in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(5), 889–894.
Vine Foggo, R. S., & Webster, A. A. (2017). Understanding the social experiences of adolescent females on the autism spectrum. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2016.11.006 .
doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2016.11.006
Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
West, T. V., & Kenny, D. A. (2011). The truth and bias model of judgment. Psychological Review. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022936 .
doi: 10.1037/a0022936
pubmed: 21480740
White, S. W., & Roberson-Nay, R. (2009). Anxiety, social deficits, and loneliness in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0713-8 .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-009-0713-8
pubmed: 19568924
pmcid: 2907432
Wilkinson, G. (1993). Wide range achievement test WRAT. Wilmington: Wide Range Inc.
Wilkinson, D. A., Best, C. A., Minshew, N. J., & Strauss, M. S. (2010). Memory awareness for faces in individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0995-x .
doi: 10.1007/s10803-010-0995-x
pubmed: 20300817
pmcid: 3050057
Williams, D. (2010). Theory of own mind in autism: Evidence of a specific deficit in self-awareness? Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361310366314 .
doi: 10.1177/1362361310366314
pubmed: 20926458
Williams, D., & Happé, F. (2010a). Recognising social and non-social emotions in self and others: A study of autism. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361309344849 .
doi: 10.1177/1362361309344849
pubmed: 20926458
Williams, D., & Happé, F. (2010b). Representing intentions in self and other: Studies of autism and typical development. Developmental Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00885.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00885.x
pubmed: 21676084
Wojcik, D. Z., Moulin, C. J. A., & Souchay, C. (2013). Metamemory in children with autism: Exploring “feeling-of-knowing” in episodic and semantic memory. Neuropsychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030526 .
doi: 10.1037/a0030526
pubmed: 23148497
Yafai, A. F., Verrier, D., & Reidy, L. (2014). Social conformity and autism spectrum disorder: A child-friendly take on a classic study. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361313508023 .
doi: 10.1177/1362361313508023
pubmed: 24126871