PD-L1 cellular nanovesicles carrying rapamycin inhibit alloimmune responses in transplantation.

Organ transplantation has been employed upon serious injuries, but a T-cell-mediated potent inflammatory immune response often leads to graft rejection. Immunosuppressive drugs such as rapamycin (RAPA) have to be taken after organ transplantation, but long-term use of these drugs causes severe adverse effects. Immune checkpoint pathways such as the programmed death-receptor 1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) provides an immunosuppressive environment, preventing excessive tissue destruction due to inflammatory immune responses. In this study, we bioengineered cell membrane-derived PD-L1 nanovesicles (PD-L1 NVs) to carry low doses of RAPA. These NVs inhibited T-cell activation and proliferation in vitro, by enhancing the PD-1/PD-L1 immune co-inhibitory signaling axis and inhibiting the mTOR pathway. Importantly, PD-L1 NVs encapsulated with rapamycin exerted stronger effects on inhibiting T-cell proliferation than PD-L1 NVs or rapamycin alone. This can be recapitulated in a mouse skin transplantation model, leading to the weakened alloimmune response and allograft tolerance. We also found that PD-L1/rapamycin vesicles have additional function to induce regulatory T cells in the recipient spleens. Our study highlighted the power of combining low-dose rapamycin and PD-L1 in the nanovesicles as immunosuppressants to promote allograft acceptance.