The Synergistic Relationship Between Climate Change and the HIV/AIDS Epidemic: A Conceptual Framework.
Climate change
Conceptual model
Food insecurity
HIV
Human migration
Journal
AIDS and behavior
ISSN: 1573-3254
Titre abrégé: AIDS Behav
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 9712133
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Jul 2021
Jul 2021
Historique:
accepted:
31
12
2020
pubmed:
17
1
2021
medline:
2
6
2021
entrez:
16
1
2021
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Climate change and HIV/AIDS represent two of the greatest threats to human health in the 21st century. However, limitations in understanding the complex relationship between these syndemics continue to constrain advancements in the prevention and management of HIV/AIDS in the context of a rapidly changing climate. Here, we present a conceptual framework that identifies four pathways linking climate change with HIV/AIDS transmission and health outcomes: increased food insecurity, increased prevalence of other infectious diseases, increased human migration, and erosion of public health infrastructure. This framework is based on an in-depth literature review in PubMed and Google Scholar from June 6 to June 27, 2019. The pathways linking climate change with HIV transmission and health outcomes are complex with multiple interacting factors. Food insecurity emerged as a particularly important mediator by driving sexual risk-taking behaviours and migration, as well as by increasing susceptibility to infections that are common among people living with HIV (PLWHIV). Future interventions should focus on decreasing carbon dioxide emissions globally and increasing education and investment in adaptation strategies, particularly in those areas of sub-Saharan Africa and southeast Asia heavily impacted by both HIV and climate change. Environmentally sustainable interventions such as urban gardening and investing in sustainable agriculture technologies also have significant health co-benefits that may help PLWHIV adapt to the environmental consequences of climate change.
Identifiants
pubmed: 33452659
doi: 10.1007/s10461-020-03155-y
pii: 10.1007/s10461-020-03155-y
pmc: PMC7810285
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
2266-2277Subventions
Organisme : NIAID NIH HHS
ID : K24 AI134326
Pays : United States
Références
Xu C, Kohler TA, Lenton TM, Svenning J-C, Scheffer M. Future of the human climate niche. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2020;117(21):11350–5. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910114117 .
doi: 10.1073/pnas.1910114117
pubmed: 32366654
Warner K, Hamza M, Oliver-Smith A, Renaud F, Julca A. Climate change, environmental degradation and migration. Nat Hazards. 2010;55(3):689–715.
Parry ML, Rosenzweig C, Iglesias A, Livermore M, Fischer G. Effects of climate change on global food production under SRES emissions and socio-economic scenarios. Global Environ Change. 2004;14(1):53–67.
Wheeler T, von Braun J. Climate change impacts on global food security. Science. 2013;61453:508–13.
Hallegatte S, et al. Shock Waves: Managing the Impacts of Climate Change on Poverty. World Bank: Climate Change and Development; 2016.
WHO. HIV/AIDS, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hiv-aids . WHO (2020). Accessed 5 Sep 2020.
Talman A, Bolton S, Walson JL. Interactions between HIV/AIDS and the environment: toward a syndemic framework. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(2):253–61. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2012.300924 .
doi: 10.2105/ajph.2012.300924
pubmed: 23237167
pmcid: 3558758
Drimie S, Casale M. Multiple stressors in Southern Africa: The link between HIV/AIDS, food insecurity, poverty and children’s vulnerability now and in the future. AIDS Care—Psychol Socio-Med Aspects AIDS/HIV. 2009;21(SUPPL. 1):28–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120902942931 .
doi: 10.1080/09540120902942931
de Waal A, Whiteside A. New variant famine: AIDS and food crisis in southern Africa. Lancet. 2003;362(9391):1234–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14548-5 .
doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14548-5
pubmed: 14568749
Schlosberg D, Collins LB. From environmental to climate justice: climate change and the discourse of environmental justice. Wiley Interdisc Rev: Clim Change. 2014;5(3):359–74.
Lewis N. An issue of environmental justice: Understanding the relationship among HIV/AIDS infection in women, water distribution, and global investment in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Black Women, Gender & Families. 2009;3(1):39–64.
Janssens C, Havlík P, Krisztin T, et al. Global hunger and climate change adaptation through international trade. Nat Clim Change. 2020:1–7.
WB. What Climate Change Means for Africa, Asia, and the Coastal Poor. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/06/19/what-climate-change-means-africa-asia-coastal-poor . Accessed 5 Sep 2020.
WHO. HIV/AIDS in the South-East Asia, https://www.who.int/southeastasia/health-topics/hiv-aids (2020). Accessed 5 Sep 2020
Low AJ, Frederix K, McCracken S, et al. Association between severe drought and HIV prevention and care behaviors in Lesotho: A population-based survey 2016–2017. PLoS Med. 2019;16(1):e1002727.
pubmed: 30640916
pmcid: 6331084
Burke M, Gong E, Jones K. Income shocks and HIV in Africa. Econ J. 2014;125(585):1157–89.
McCoy SI, Ralph LJ, Njau PF, Msolla MM, Padian NS. Food insecurity, socioeconomic status, and HIV-related risk behavior among women in farming households in Tanzania. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(7):1224–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0629-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s10461-013-0629-3
pubmed: 24097335
pmcid: 3977025
Shannon K, Kerr T, Milloy MJ, et al. Severe food insecurity is associated with elevated unprotected sex among HIV-seropositive injection drug users independent of HAART use. AIDS. 2011;25(16):2037–42. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834b35c9 .
doi: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834b35c9
pubmed: 21811140
pmcid: 3956106
Oyefara JL. Food insecurity, HIV/AIDS pandemic and sexual behaviour of female commercial sex workers in Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. SAHARA-J: J Soc Aspects HIV/AIDS. 2007;4(2):626–35.
Weiser SD, Leiter K, Bangsberg DR, et al. Food insufficiency is associated with high-risk sexual behavior among women in Botswana and Swaziland. PLoS Med. 2007;10:1589–97. discussion 1598.
Oyefara JL. Food insecurity, HIV/AIDS pandemic and sexual behaviour of female commercial sex workers in Lagos metropolis Nigeria. SAHARA J. 2007;4(2):626–35.
pubmed: 18071614
Koethe JR, Heimburger DC. Nutritional aspects of HIV-associated wasting in sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(4):1138S-1142S.
pubmed: 20147470
pmcid: 2844686
Weiser SD, Gupta R, Tsai AC, et al. Changes in food insecurity, nutritional status, and physical health status after antiretroviral therapy initiation in rural Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61(2):179–86. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e318261f064 .
doi: 10.1097/QAI.0b013e318261f064
pubmed: 22692093
pmcid: 3948100
Kublin JG, Patnaik P, Jere CS, et al. Effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria on concentration of HIV-1-RNA in the blood of adults in rural Malawi: a prospective cohort study. The Lancet. 2005;365(9455):233–40.
Githinji V, Crane TA. Compound Vulnerabilities: The Intersection of Climate Variability and HIV/AIDS in Northwestern Tanzania. Article. Weather Clim Soc. 2014;6(1):9–21. https://doi.org/10.1175/wcas-d-12-00052.1 .
doi: 10.1175/wcas-d-12-00052.1
Wasserman P, Segal-Maurer S, Wehbeh W, Rubin DS. Wasting disease, chronic immune activation, and inflammation in the hiv-infected patient. Topics Clin Nutr. 2011;26(1):14–28. https://doi.org/10.1097/TIN.0b013e318209e3a0 .
doi: 10.1097/TIN.0b013e318209e3a0
Hewitt K, Steketee R, Mwapasa V, Whitworth J, French N. Interactions between HIV and malaria in non-pregnant adults: evidence and implications. Aids. 2006;20(16):1993–2004.
pubmed: 17053345
Voeten HA, Vissers DC, Gregson S, et al. Strong association between in-migration and HIV prevalence in urban sub-Saharan Africa. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37(4):240.
pubmed: 19959971
pmcid: 3514976
Ngigi MM. A Geographical study on the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Kenya. Unpublished doctoral dissertation in Geoenvironmental Sciences submitted to the Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, the University of Tsukuba. 2007.
Tanser F, Bärnighausen T, Vandormael A, Dobra A. HIV treatment cascade in migrants and mobile populations. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2015;10(6):430–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/coh.0000000000000192 .
doi: 10.1097/coh.0000000000000192
pubmed: 26352396
Schatz JJ. Floods hamper health-care delivery in southern Africa. Lancet. 2008;371(9615):799–800.
pubmed: 18335572
Tuller DM, Bangsberg DR, Senkungu J, Ware NC, Emenyonu N, Weiser SD. Transportation costs impede sustained adherence and access to HAART in a clinic population in southwestern Uganda: a qualitative study. AIDS Behav. 2010;14(4):778–84.
pubmed: 19283464
Parker DC, Jacobsen KH, Komwa MK. A qualitative study of the impact of HIV/AIDS on agricultural households in Southeastern Uganda. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2009;6(8):2113–38. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6082113 .
doi: 10.3390/ijerph6082113
pubmed: 19742210
pmcid: 2738877
Dawson TP, Perryman AH, Osborne TM. Modelling impacts of climate change on global food security. Clim Change. 2016;134(3):429–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1277-y .
doi: 10.1007/s10584-014-1277-y
Jha UC, Bohra A, Singh NP. Heat stress in crop plants: its nature, impacts and integrated breeding strategies to improve heat tolerance. Review. Plant Breed. 2014;133(6):679–701. https://doi.org/10.1111/pbr.12217 .
doi: 10.1111/pbr.12217
Hagos S, Lunde T, Mariam DH, Woldehanna T, Lindtjorn B. Climate change, crop production and child under nutrition in Ethiopia; a longitudinal panel study Article. Bmc Public Health. 2014;14(9):884. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-884 .
doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-884
pubmed: 25163522
pmcid: 4158109
McGregor J. Climate change and Involuntary migration: implications for food security. Food Policy. 1994;19(2):120–32.
Crush J, Grant M, Frayne B. Linking migration. Citeseer: HIV/AIDS and urban food security in Southern and Eastern Africa; 2007.
Schmidhuber J, Tubiello FN. Global food security under climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2007;104(50):19703–8.
pubmed: 18077404
Serdeczny O, Adams S, Baarsch F, et al. Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions. Reg Environ Change. 2017;17(6):1585–600.
Nelson GC, Rosegrant MW, Koo J, et al. Climate change: Impact on agriculture and costs of adaptation. Intl Food Policy Res Inst. 2009;21
Zhai F, Zhuang J. Agricultural impact of climate change: A general equilibrium analysis with special reference to Southeast Asia. Climate change in Asia and the Pacific: How can countries adapt. 2012;17–35.
Camlin CS, Kwena ZA, Dworkin SL, Cohen CR, Bukusi EA. She mixes her business: HIV transmission and acquisition risks among female migrants in western Kenya. Soc Sci Med. 2014;102:146–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.004
pubmed: 24565152
McMichael C. Climate Change and Migration: Food Insecurity as a Driver and Outcome of Climate Change-Related Migration. Environmental Deterioration and Human Health: Natural and Anthropogenic Determinants; 2013. p. 291–313.
Afifi T, Liwenga E, Kwezi L. Rainfall-induced crop failure, food insecurity and out-migration in Same-Kilimanjaro Tanzania. Clim Dev. 2014;6(1):53–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2013.826128 .
doi: 10.1080/17565529.2013.826128
De Vogli R, Birbeck GL. Potential impact of adjustment policies on vulnerability of women and children to HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. J Health Popul Nutr. 2005;23(2):105–20.
pubmed: 16117362
Weiser SD, Tsai AC, Gupta R, et al. Food insecurity is associated with morbidity and patterns of healthcare utilization among HIV-infected individuals in a resource-poor setting. AIDS. 2012;26(1):67–75. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834cad37 .
doi: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834cad37
pubmed: 21904186
pmcid: 3606954
Young S, Wheeler AC, McCoy SI, Weiser SD. A review of the role of food insecurity in adherence to care and treatment among adult and pediatric populations living with HIV and AIDS. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(5):505–15.
pmcid: 3888651
Franke MF, Murray MB, Munoz M, et al. Food insufficiency is a risk factor for suboptimal antiretroviral therapy adherence among HIV-infected adults in urban Peru. AIDS Behav. 2011;15(7):1483–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-010-9789-6 .
doi: 10.1007/s10461-010-9789-6
pubmed: 20714923
pmcid: 3377162
Weiser SD, Palar K, Frongillo EA, et al. Longitudinal assessment of associations between food insecurity, antiretroviral adherence and HIV treatment outcomes in rural Uganda. AIDS. 2014;28(1):115–20. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000433238.93986.35 .
doi: 10.1097/01.aids.0000433238.93986.35
pubmed: 23939234
pmcid: 4629837
Evans DL, Ten Have TR, Douglas SD, et al. Association of depression with viral load, CD8 T lymphocytes, and natural killer cells in women with HIV infection. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(10):1752–9.
pubmed: 12359683
Palar K, Kushel M, Frongillo EA, et al. Food insecurity is longitudinally associated with depressive symptoms among homeless and marginally-housed individuals living with HIV. AIDS Behav. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-014-0922-9 .
doi: 10.1007/s10461-014-0922-9
pubmed: 24788781
pmcid: 4324626
Kalichman SC, Cherry C, Amaral C, et al. Health and treatment implications of food insufficiency among people living with HIV/AIDS, Atlanta, Georgia. J Urban Health. 2010;87(4):631–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-010-9446-4 .
doi: 10.1007/s11524-010-9446-4
pubmed: 20419478
pmcid: 2900577
Van der Sande MA, van der Loeff MFS, Aveika AA, et al. Body mass index at time of HIV diagnosis: a strong and independent predictor of survival. JAIDS J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;37(2):1288–94.
pubmed: 15385737
Tang AM, Forrester J, Spiegelman D, Knox TA, Tchetgen E, Gorbach SL. Weight loss and survival in HIV-positive patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr (1999). 2002;31(2):230–6.
Guenter P, Muurahainen N, Simons G, et al. Relationships among nutritional status, disease progression, and survival in HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1993;6(10):1130–8.
pubmed: 8105073
Coutsoudis A, Bobat R, Coovadia HM, Kuhn L, Tsai W-y, Stein ZA. The effects of vitamin A supplementation on the morbidity of children born to HIV-infected women. American Journal of Public Health. 1995;85(8_Pt_1):1076–1081.
Macallan DC, Noble C, Baldwin C, et al. Energy expenditure and wasting in human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1995;333(2):83–8.
pubmed: 7777033
Gustavson L, Lam W, Bertz R, et al. Assessment of the bioequivalence and food effects for liquid and soft gelatin capsule co-formulations of ABT-378/ritonavir (ABT-378/r) in healthy subjects. 2000;17–20.
Ebi KL. Adaptation costs for climate change-related cases of diarrhoeal disease, malnutrition, and malaria in 2030. Global Health. 2008;4:9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-8603-4-9 .
doi: 10.1186/1744-8603-4-9
pubmed: 18803827
pmcid: 2556651
Park BJ, Sigel K, Vaz V, et al. An epidemic of coccidioidomycosis in Arizona associated with climatic changes, 1998–2001. J Infect Dis. 2005;191(11):1981–7.
pubmed: 15871133
Erickson RA, Hayhoe K, Presley SM, Allen LJS, Long KR, Cox SB. Potential impacts of climate change on the ecology of dengue and its mosquito vector the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus). Environ Res Lett. 2012;7(3):034003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034003 .
doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034003
Patz JA, Olson SH. Malaria risk and temperature: Influences from global climate change and local land use practices. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2006;103(15):5635–6.
pubmed: 16595623
Parham PE, Michael E. Modeling the effects of weather and climate change on malaria transmission. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118(5):620–6. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0901256 .
doi: 10.1289/ehp.0901256
pubmed: 20435552
Feria-Arroyo TP, Castro-Arellano I, Gordillo-Perez G, et al. Implications of climate change on the distribution of the tick vector Ixodes scapularis and risk for Lyme disease in the Texas-Mexico transboundary region. Parasites and Vectors. 2014;7(1):199. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-199 .
doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-199
pubmed: 24766735
Mason JB, Chotard S, Bailes A, Mebrahtu S, Hailey P. Impact of drought and HIV on child nutrition in Eastern and Southern Africa. Food Nutr Bull. 2010;31(3 Suppl):S209-218.
pubmed: 21049842
Abu-Raddad LJ, Patnaik P, Kublin JG. Dual infection with HIV and malaria fuels the spread of both diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Science. 2006;314(5805):1603–6.
pubmed: 17158329
Patz JA, Reisen WK. Immunology, climate change and vector-borne diseases. Trends Immunol. 2001;4:171–2.
Ter Kuile FO, Parise ME, Verhoeff FH, et al. The burden of co-infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and malaria in pregnant women in sub-saharan Africa. Am J Tropic Med Hygiene. 2004;71(2_Suppl):41–54.
Von Seidlein L, Wang XY, Macuamule A, et al. Is HIV infection associated with an increased risk for cholera? Findings from a case–control study in Mozambique. Tropic Med Int Health. 2008;13(5):683–8.
Githeko AK, Lindsay SW, Confalonieri UE, Patz JA. Climate change and vector-borne diseases: a regional analysis. Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78(9):1136–47.
pubmed: 11019462
pmcid: 2560843
Brisbois BW, Ali SH. Climate change, vector-borne disease and interdisciplinary research: social science perspectives on an environment and health controversy. EcoHealth. 2010;7(4):425–38.
pubmed: 21125310
Semenza JC, Suk JE. Vector-borne diseases and climate change: a European perspective. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2018;365(2):fnx244.
Khasnis AA, Nettleman MD. Global warming and infectious disease. Arch Med Res. 2005;6:689–96.
Hoffman IF, Jere CS, Taylor TE, et al. The effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria on HIV-1 RNA blood plasma concentration. Aids. 1999;13(4):487–94.
pubmed: 10197377
Epstein PR. Climate change and emerging infectious diseases. Microb Infect. 2001;3(9):747–54.
Bai L, Morton LC, Liu Q. Climate change and mosquito-borne diseases in China: a review. Globaliz Health. 2013;9(1):10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-8603-9-10 .
doi: 10.1186/1744-8603-9-10
Ready P. Leishmaniasis emergence and climate change. Revue Scientifique Et Technique-Office International Des Epizooties. 2014;27(2)
Franke CR, Ziller M, Staubach C, Latif M. Impact of El niño/southern oscillation on visceral leishmaniasis, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8(9):914.
pubmed: 12194766
pmcid: 2732547
Alvar J, Aparicio P, Aseffa A, et al. The relationship between leishmaniasis and AIDS: the second 10 years. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008;21(2):334–59.
pubmed: 18400800
pmcid: 2292576
Mills JN, Gage KL, Khan AS. Potential influence of climate change on vector-borne and zoonotic diseases: a review and proposed research plan. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118(11):1507–14.
pubmed: 20576580
pmcid: 2974686
Rocklöv J, Sjödin H. High population densities catalyse the spread of COVID-19. J Travel Med. 2020;27(3):taaa038.
pubmed: 32227186
Schwartz SA. America, COVID-19, Climate change, and migration. Explore (New York, Ny). 2020
Chamie J. International Migration amid a World in Crisis. J Migrat Human Secur. 2020;2331502420948796.
Chakraborty I, Maity P. COVID-19 outbreak: Migration, effects on society, global environment and prevention. Sci Total Environ 2020:138882.
Cooper T, Woodward B, Alom S, Harky A. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) outcomes in HIV/AIDS patients: a systematic review. HIV Med. 2020.
Nyoni T, Okumu M. COVID-19-Compliant Strategies for Supporting Treatment Adherence Among People Living with HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS and Behavior. 2020:1.
Jiang H, Zhou Y, Tang W. Maintaining HIV care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet HIV. 2020;7(5):e308–9.
pubmed: 32272084
pmcid: 7239666
Alexander KA, Heaney AK, Shaman J. Hydrometeorology and flood pulse dynamics drive diarrheal disease outbreaks and increase vulnerability to climate change in surface-water-dependent populations: A retrospective analysis. PLoS Med. 2018;15(11):e1002688.
pubmed: 30408029
pmcid: 6224043
Cash BA, Rodo X, Emch M, Yunus MD, Faruque ASG, Pascual M. Cholera and shigellosis: Different epidemiology but similar responses to climate variability. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(9):A1306. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107223 .
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107223
Hunter PR. Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease. J Appl Microbiol. 2003;37S-46S.
Lew EA, Poles MA, Dieterich DT. Diarrheal diseases associated with HIV infection. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1997;26(2):259–90.
pubmed: 9187925
Katabira ET. Epidemiology and management of diarrheal disease in HIV infected patients. Int J Infect Dis. 1999;3(3):164–7.
pubmed: 10460930
Chowdhury FR, Nur Z, Hassan N, von Seidlein L, Dunachie S. Pandemics, pathogenicity and changing molecular epidemiology of cholera in the era of global warming. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2017;16(1):1–6.
Lipp EK, Huq A, Colwell RR. Effects of global climate on infectious disease: the cholera model. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15(4):757–70.
pubmed: 12364378
pmcid: 126864
Rey J-L, Milleliri J-M, Scares J-L, et al. HIV seropositivity and cholera in refugee children from Rwanda. Aids. 1995;9(10):1203.
pubmed: 8519464
Mushayabasa S, Bhunu CP. Is HIV infection associated with an increased risk for cholera? Insights from a mathematical model. Biosystems. 2012;109(2):203–13.
pubmed: 22609496
Armstrong-James D, Meintjes G, Brown GD. A neglected epidemic: fungal infections in HIV/AIDS. Trends Microbiol. 2014;22(3):120–7.
pubmed: 24530175
Pakpour S, Li D-W, Klironomos J. Relationships of fungal spore concentrations in the air and meteorological factors. Fungal Ecol. 2015;13:130–4.
Tong DQ, Wang JX, Gill TE, Lei H, Wang B. Intensified dust storm activity and Valley fever infection in the southwestern United States. Geophys Res Lett. 2017;44(9):4304–12.
pubmed: 30166741
pmcid: 6108409
Stansell J. Pulmonary fungal infections in HIV-infected persons. 1993;116–123.
MMWR. Coccidiomycosis - Arizona, 1990–1995. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996;45:1069–1073. http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite-KB-ref.jsp?page=kb-05-02-04&rf=5
Shackleton SE, Shackleton CM. Linking poverty, HIV/AIDS and climate change to human and ecosystem vulnerability in southern Africa: Consequences for livelihoods and sustainable ecosystem management. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol. 2012;19(3):275–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2011.641039 .
doi: 10.1080/13504509.2011.641039
Biermann F, Boas I. Preparing for a warmer world: Towards a global governance system to protect climate refugees. Global Environ Politics. 2010;10(1):60–88.
Malcolm JR, Markham A, Neilson RP, Garaci M. Estimated migration rates under scenarios of global climate change. J Biogeogr. 2002;29(7):835–49.
Rahmstorf S. A new view on sea level rise. Nat Clim Change. 2010;1(1004):44–5.
McGranahan G, Balk D, Anderson B. The rising tide: assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environ Urbaniz. 2007;19(1):17–37.
Rigaud KK, Jones B, Bergmann J, et al. Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2018.
Black R, Adger N, Arnell N, Dercon S, Geddes A, Thomas D. Migration and global environmental change: future challenges and opportunities. 2011.
Myers N. Environmental refugees: a growing phenomenon of the 21st century. Philosoph Transact Royal Soc London B: Biol Sci. 2002;357(1420):609–13.
Brzoska M, Fröhlich C. Climate change, migration and violent conflict: vulnerabilities, pathways and adaptation strategies. Migrat Dev. 2016;5(2):190–210.
Brockerhoff M, Biddlecom AE. Migration, sexual behavior and the risk of HIV in Kenya. Int Migrat Rev. 1999;833–856.
Lurie MN, Williams BG, Zuma K, et al. The impact of migration on HIV-1 transmission in South Africa: a study of migrant and nonmigrant men and their partners. Sex Transm Dis. 2003;30(2):149–56.
pubmed: 12567174
Brummer D. Labour migration and HIV/AIDS in southern Africa. Int Organiz Migrat Region Office Southern Africa. 2002.
Docquier F, Vasilakis C, Tamfutu MD. International migration and the propagation of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. J Health Econ. 2014;35(1):20–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2014.01.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2014.01.004
pubmed: 24647086
Sakschewski B, Von Bloh W, Huber V, Müller C, Bondeau A. Feeding 10 billion people under climate change: How large is the production gap of current agricultural systems? Ecol Model. 2014;288:103–11.
City BL, Assessment E. Urbanization and health. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88(4):245–6.
Ritchie H, Roser M. Urbanization. Our world in Data. 2018.
Miles EL, Elsner MM, Littell JS, Binder LW, Lettenmaier DP. Assessing regional impacts and adaptation strategies for climate change: the washington climate change impacts assessment. Clim Change. 2010;102(1–2):9–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9853-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s10584-010-9853-2
Henderson JV, Turner MA. Urbanization in the developing world: too early or too slow? 2020;0898–2937.
Lane K, Charles-Guzman K, Wheeler K, Abid Z, Graber N, Matte T. Health effects of coastal storms and flooding in urban areas: a review and vulnerability assessment. J Environ Public Health. 2013;2013:913064. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/913064 .
doi: 10.1155/2013/913064
pubmed: 23818911
pmcid: 3683478
Van Minh H, Tuan Anh T, Rocklov J, et al. Primary healthcare system capacities for responding to storm and flood-related health problems: a case study from a rural district in central Vietnam. Glob Health Action. 2014;23007.
Anthonj C, Nkongolo OT, Schmitz P, Hango JN, Kistemann T. The impact of flooding on people living with HIV: a case study from the Ohangwena Region, Namibia. Global Health Action. 2015;8(1):26441. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v8.26441 .
doi: 10.3402/gha.v8.26441
pubmed: 25813771
Chinowsky P, Schweikert A, Strzepek N, Manahan K, Strzepek K. Adaptation advantage to climate change impacts on road infrastructure in Africa through 2100. WIDER Working Paper. 2011.
Consulting S. Climate Change Impacts on Transportation Infrastructure. Report Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Stratus Consulting, Boulder, CO2010.
Economics I. Costing climate impacts and adaptation: A Canadian study on public infrastructure. Ontario, Canada: National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy Ottawa; 2010.
Kaberuka D. Kaberuka: Africa needs usd 40 billion/year in climate aid. African Dev Bank Group. 2009;12(02):2009.
Chinowsky PS, Schweikert AE, Strzepek NL, Strzepek K. Infrastructure and climate change: a study of impacts and adaptations in Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia. Clim Change. 2015;130(1):49–62.
Scientists UoC. Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions. https://www.ucsusa.org/global-warming/science-and-impacts/science/each-countrys-share-of-co2.html2018 .
WB. Preparing, Procuring, and Implementing Climate-Smart PPPs. https://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership/climate-smart-clean-technology-ppps/preparing-procuring-and-implementing-climate-smart-ppps (2020). Accessed 6 Sep 2020.
McMichael A, Butler C, Weaver H. Climate change and AIDS: a joint working paper. UNEP and UNAIDS. 2008.
Sanchez PA, Denning GL, Nziguheba G. The African green revolution moves forward. Food Secur. 2009;1(1):37–44.
Smit B, Skinner MW. Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: a typology. Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Change. 2002;7(1):85–114.
Nevill C, Some E, Mung’Ala V, et al. Insecticide-treated bednets reduce mortality and severe morbidity from malaria among children on the Kenyan coast. Tropical Med Int Health. 1996;1(2):139–46.
Lengeler C. Insecticide‐treated bed nets and curtains for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database of Syst Rev. 2004;(2)
Chazan M, Brklacich M, Whiteside A. Rethinking the conceptual terrain of AIDS scholarship: lessons from comparing 27 years of AIDS and climate change research. Global and Health. 2009. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-8603-5-12 .
doi: 10.1186/1744-8603-5-12