Prevention and Treatment of Nerve Injuries in Shoulder Arthroplasty.
Journal
The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume
ISSN: 1535-1386
Titre abrégé: J Bone Joint Surg Am
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 0014030
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
19 05 2021
19 05 2021
Historique:
pubmed:
21
4
2021
medline:
28
10
2021
entrez:
20
4
2021
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Nerve injuries during shoulder arthroplasty have traditionally been considered rare events, but recent electrodiagnostic studies have shown that intraoperative nerve trauma is relatively common. The brachial plexus and axillary and suprascapular nerves are the most commonly injured neurologic structures, with the radial and musculocutaneous nerves being less common sites of injury. Specific measures taken during the surgical approach, component implantation, and revision surgery may help to prevent direct nerve injury. Intraoperative positioning maneuvers and arm lengthening warrant consideration to minimize indirect injuries. Suspected nerve injuries should be investigated with electromyography preferably at 6 weeks and no later than 3 months postoperatively, allowing for primary reconstruction within 3 to 6 months of injury when indicated. Primary reconstructive options include neurolysis, direct nerve repair, nerve grafting, and nerve transfers. Secondary reconstruction is preferred for injuries presenting >12 months after surgery. Secondary reconstructive options with favorable outcomes include tendon transfers and free functioning muscle transfers.
Identifiants
pubmed: 33877057
doi: 10.2106/JBJS.20.01716
pii: 00004623-202105190-00015
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
935-946Informations de copyright
Copyright © 2021 by The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Incorporated.
Déclaration de conflit d'intérêts
Disclosure: The authors indicated that no external funding was received for any aspect of this work. The Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest forms are provided with the online version of the article (http://links.lww.com/JBJS/G395).
Références
Dillon MT, Prentice HA, Burfeind WE, Chan PH, Navarro RA. The increasing role of reverse total shoulder arthroplasty in the treatment of proximal humerus fractures. Injury. 2019 Mar;50(3):676-80. Epub 2019 Jan 30.
Dillon MT, Chan PH, Inacio MCS, Singh A, Yian EH, Navarro RA. Yearly trends in elective shoulder arthroplasty, 2005-2013. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2017 Oct;69(10):1574-81. Epub 2017 Aug 31.
Westermann RW, Pugely AJ, Martin CT, Gao Y, Wolf BR, Hettrich CM. Reverse shoulder arthroplasty in the United States: a comparison of national volume, patient demographics, complications, and surgical indications. Iowa Orthop J. 2015;35:1-7.
Bohsali KI, Wirth MA, Rockwood CA Jr. Complications of total shoulder arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006 Oct;88(10):2279-92.
Boileau P. Complications and revision of reverse total shoulder arthroplasty. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2016 Feb;102(1)(Suppl):S33-43. Epub 2016 Feb 12.
Somerson JS, Hsu JE, Neradilek MB, Matsen FA 3rd. Analysis of 4063 complications of shoulder arthroplasty reported to the US Food and Drug Administration from 2012 to 2016. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2018 Nov;27(11):1978-86. Epub 2018 May 11.
Cheung E, Willis M, Walker M, Clark R, Frankle MA. Complications in reverse total shoulder arthroplasty. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2011 Jul;19(7):439-49.
Kim HJ, Kwon TY, Jeon YS, Kang SG, Rhee YG, Rhee SM. Neurologic deficit after reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: correlation with distalization. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2020 Jun;29(6):1096-103. Epub 2020 Feb 17.
Lädermann A, Stimec BV, Denard PJ, Cunningham G, Collin P, Fasel JH. Injury to the axillary nerve after reverse shoulder arthroplasty: an anatomical study. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2014 Feb;100(1):105-8. Epub 2013 Dec 4.
Lowe JT, Lawler SM, Testa EJ, Jawa A. Lateralization of the glenosphere in reverse shoulder arthroplasty decreases arm lengthening and demonstrates comparable risk of nerve injury compared with anatomic arthroplasty: a prospective cohort study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2018 Oct;27(10):1845-51. Epub 2018 Aug 13.
Carofino BC, Brogan DM, Kircher MF, Elhassan BT, Spinner RJ, Bishop AT, Shin AY. Iatrogenic nerve injuries during shoulder surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013 Sep 18;95(18):1667-74.
Boardman ND 3rd, Cofield RH. Neurologic complications of shoulder surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1999 Nov;368:44-53.
Athwal GS, Sperling JW, Rispoli DM, Cofield RH. Periprosthetic humeral fractures during shoulder arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2009 Mar 1;91(3):594-603.
Conn RA, Cofield RH, Byer DE, Linstromberg JW. Interscalene block anesthesia for shoulder surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1987 Mar;216:94-8.
Lädermann A, Lübbeke A, Mélis B, Stern R, Christofilopoulos P, Bacle G, Walch G. Prevalence of neurologic lesions after total shoulder arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2011 Jul 20;93(14):1288-93.
Parisien RL, Yi PH, Hou L, Li X, Jawa A. The risk of nerve injury during anatomical and reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: an intraoperative neuromonitoring study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2016 Jul;25(7):1122-7.
Sherfey MC, Edwards TB. Cement extrusion causing radial nerve palsy after shoulder arthroplasty: a case report. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2009 May-Jun;18(3):e21-4. Epub 2009 Mar 14.
Wingert NC, Beck JD, Harter GD. Avulsive axillary artery injury in reverse total shoulder arthroplasty. Orthopedics. 2014 Jan;37(1):e92-7.
Jauregui JJ, Nadarajah V, Shield WP 3rd, Henn RF 3rd, Gilotra M, Hasan SA. Reverse shoulder arthroplasty: perioperative considerations and complications. JBJS Rev. 2018 Aug;6(8):e3.
Lynch NM, Cofield RH, Silbert PL, Hermann RC. Neurologic complications after total shoulder arthroplasty. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 1996 Jan-Feb;5(1):53-61.
Wirth MA, Rockwood CA Jr. Complications of total shoulder-replacement arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1996 Apr;78(4):603-16.
Zumstein MA, Pinedo M, Old J, Boileau P. Problems, complications, reoperations, and revisions in reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: a systematic review. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2011 Jan;20(1):146-57.
Lopiz Y, Rodriguez-González A, Martín-Albarrán S, Marcelo H, García-Fernández C, Marco F. Injury to the axillary and suprascapular nerves in rotator cuff arthropathy and after reverse shoulder arthroplasty: a prospective electromyographic analysis. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2018 Jul;27(7):1275-82. Epub 2018 Feb 21.
Scully WF, Wilson DJ, Parada SA, Arrington ED. Iatrogenic nerve injuries in shoulder surgery. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2013 Dec;21(12):717-26.
Loomer R, Graham B. Anatomy of the axillary nerve and its relation to inferior capsular shift. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989 Jun;243:100-5.
Duparc F, Bocquet G, Simonet J, Freger P. Anatomical basis of the variable aspects of injuries of the axillary nerve (excluding the terminal branches in the deltoid muscle). Surg Radiol Anat. 1997;19(3):127-32.
Yoo JC, Kim JH, Ahn JH, Lee SH. Arthroscopic perspective of the axillary nerve in relation to the glenoid and arm position: a cadaveric study. Arthroscopy. 2007 Dec;23(12):1271-7.
Ball CM, Steger T, Galatz LM, Yamaguchi K. The posterior branch of the axillary nerve: an anatomic study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003 Aug;85(8):1497-501.
Leschinger T, Hackl M, Buess E, Lappen S, Scaal M, Müller LP, Wegmann K. The risk of suprascapular and axillary nerve injury in reverse total shoulder arthroplasty: an anatomic study. Injury. 2017 Oct;48(10):2042-9. Epub 2017 Jun 28.
Simone JP, Streubel PN, Sanchez-Sotelo J, Steinmann SP, Adams JE. Change in the distance from the axillary nerve to the glenohumeral joint with shoulder external rotation or abduction position. Hand (N Y). 2017 Jul;12(4):395-400. Epub 2016 Oct 13.
Wang J, Singh A, Higgins L, Warner J. Suprascapular neuropathy secondary to reverse shoulder arthroplasty: a case report. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2010 Apr;19(3):e5-8. Epub 2010 Jan 13.
Shishido H, Kikuchi S. Injury of the suprascapular nerve in shoulder surgery: an anatomic study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2001 Jul-Aug;10(4):372-6.
Molony DC, Cassar Gheiti AJ, Kennedy J, Green C, Schepens A, Mullett HJ. A cadaveric model for suprascapular nerve injury during glenoid component screw insertion in reverse-geometry shoulder arthroplasty. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2011 Dec;20(8):1323-7. Epub 2011 May 20.
Clavert P, Lutz JC, Wolfram-Gabel R, Kempf JF, Kahn JL. Relationships of the musculocutaneous nerve and the coracobrachialis during coracoid abutment procedure (Latarjet procedure). Surg Radiol Anat. 2009 Jan;31(1):49-53. Epub 2008 Oct 21.
Ma H, Van Heest A, Glisson C, Patel S. Musculocutaneous nerve entrapment: an unusual complication after biceps tenodesis. Am J Sports Med. 2009 Dec;37(12):2467-9. Epub 2009 Jul 22.
Yung H, Lagemann GM, Lin A, Orebaugh SL, Cortazzo MH. Lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve entrapment after shoulder arthroscopy: a case report. PM R. 2015 Aug;7(8):889-94. Epub 2015 Mar 13.
Fu MC, Hendel MD, Chen X, Warren RF, Dines DM, Gulotta LV. Surgical anatomy of the radial nerve in the deltopectoral approach for revision shoulder arthroplasty and periprosthetic fracture fixation: a cadaveric study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2017 Dec;26(12):2173-6. Epub 2017 Sep 19.
Fram B, Elder A, Namdari S. Periprosthetic humeral fractures in shoulder arthroplasty. JBJS Rev. 2019 Nov;7(11):e6.
Nagda SH, Rogers KJ, Sestokas AK, Getz CL, Ramsey ML, Glaser DL, Williams GR Jr. Neer Award 2005: peripheral nerve function during shoulder arthroplasty using intraoperative nerve monitoring. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2007 May-Jun;16(3)(Suppl):S2-8. Epub 2006 Jul 26.
Marion B, Leclère FM, Casoli V, Paganini F, Unglaub F, Spies C, Valenti P. Potential axillary nerve stretching during RSA implantation: an anatomical study. Anat Sci Int. 2014 Sep;89(4):232-7. Epub 2014 Feb 5.
Ball CM. Neurologic complications of shoulder joint replacement. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2017 Dec;26(12):2125-32. Epub 2017 Jul 5.
Boileau P, Watkinson D, Hatzidakis AM, Hovorka I. Neer Award 2005: the Grammont reverse shoulder prosthesis: results in cuff tear arthritis, fracture sequelae, and revision arthroplasty. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2006 Sep-Oct;15(5):527-40.
Holzgrefe RE, Wagner ER, Singer AD, Daly CA. Imaging of the peripheral nerve: concepts and future direction of magnetic resonance neurography and ultrasound. J Hand Surg Am. 2019 Dec;44(12):1066-79. Epub 2019 Oct 2.
Siriwanarangsun P, Bae WC, Statum S, Chung CB. Advanced MRI techniques for the ankle. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2017 Sep;209(3):511-24. Epub 2017 Jun 1.
Wolf M, Bäumer P, Pedro M, Dombert T, Staub F, Heiland S, Bendszus M, Pham M. Sciatic nerve injury related to hip replacement surgery: imaging detection by MR neurography despite susceptibility artifacts. PLoS One. 2014 Feb 18;9(2):e89154.
McDonald CM, Carter GT, Fritz RC, Anderson MW, Abresch RT, Kilmer DD. Magnetic resonance imaging of denervated muscle: comparison to electromyography. Muscle Nerve. 2000 Sep;23(9):1431-4.
Tepeli B, Karataş M, Coşkun M, Yemişçi OÜ. A comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and electroneuromyography for denervated muscle diagnosis. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2017 May;34(3):248-53.
Bergquist ER, Hammert WC. Timing and appropriate use of electrodiagnostic studies. Hand Clin. 2013 Aug;29(3):363-70. Epub 2013 Jun 12.
Daube JR, Rubin DI. Needle electromyography. Muscle Nerve. 2009 Feb;39(2):244-70.
Robinson LR. How electrodiagnosis predicts clinical outcome of focal peripheral nerve lesions. Muscle Nerve. 2015 Sep;52(3):321-33. Epub 2015 Jun 30.
Shin AY, Spinner RJ, Steinmann SP, Bishop AT. Adult traumatic brachial plexus injuries. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2005 Oct;13(6):382-96.
Visser CP, Tavy DL, Coene LN, Brand R. Electromyographic findings in shoulder dislocations and fractures of the proximal humerus: comparison with clinical neurological examination. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1999 Jun;101(2):86-91.
Noland SS, Bishop AT, Spinner RJ, Shin AY. Adult traumatic brachial plexus injuries. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2019 Oct 1;27(19):705-16.
Flores AJ, Lavernia CJ, Owens PW. Anatomy and physiology of peripheral nerve injury and repair. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ). 2000 Mar;29(3):167-73.
Isaacs J, Cochran AR. Nerve transfers for peripheral nerve injury in the upper limb: a case-based review. Bone Joint J. 2019 Feb;101-B(2):124-31.
Giuffre JL, Bishop AT, Spinner RJ, Shin AY. The best of tendon and nerve transfers in the upper extremity. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2015 Mar;135(3):617e-30e.
Griffin JW, Hogan MV, Chhabra AB, Deal DN. Peripheral nerve repair and reconstruction. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013 Dec 4;95(23):2144-51.
Tiel RL, Happel LT Jr, Kline DG. Nerve action potential recording method and equipment. Neurosurgery. 1996 Jul;39(1):103-8; discussion 108-9.
Deal DN, Griffin JW, Hogan MV. Nerve conduits for nerve repair or reconstruction. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2012 Feb;20(2):63-8.
Lohmeyer JA, Kern Y, Schmauss D, Paprottka F, Stang F, Siemers F, Mailaender P, Machens HG. Prospective clinical study on digital nerve repair with collagen nerve conduits and review of literature. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2014 May;30(4):227-34. Epub 2013 Dec 12.
Safa B, Buncke G. Autograft substitutes: conduits and processed nerve allografts. Hand Clin. 2016 May;32(2):127-40.
Steinmann SP, Moran EA. Axillary nerve injury: diagnosis and treatment. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2001 Sep-Oct;9(5):328-35.
Hoang D, Chen VW, Seruya M. Recovery of elbow flexion after nerve reconstruction versus free functional muscle transfer for late, traumatic brachial plexus palsy: a systematic review. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2018 Apr;141(4):949-59.
Lee JY, Kircher MF, Spinner RJ, Bishop AT, Shin AY. Factors affecting outcome of triceps motor branch transfer for isolated axillary nerve injury. J Hand Surg Am. 2012 Nov;37(11):2350-6. Epub 2012 Oct 6.
Atlan F, Durand S, Fox M, Levy P, Belkheyar Z, Oberlin C. Functional outcome of glenohumeral fusion in brachial plexus palsy: a report of 54 cases. J Hand Surg Am. 2012 Apr;37(4):683-8.
Maldonado AA, Kircher MF, Spinner RJ, Bishop AT, Shin AY. Free functioning gracilis muscle transfer versus intercostal nerve transfer to musculocutaneous nerve for restoration of elbow flexion after traumatic adult brachial pan-plexus injury. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016 Sep;138(3):483e-8e.
Maldonado AA, Kircher MF, Spinner RJ, Bishop AT, Shin AY. Free functioning gracilis muscle transfer with and without simultaneous intercostal nerve transfer to musculocutaneous nerve for restoration of elbow flexion after traumatic adult brachial pan-plexus injury. J Hand Surg Am. 2017 Apr;42(4):293.e1-7. Epub 2017 Feb 27.
Baltzer HL, Kircher MF, Spinner RJ, Bishop AT, Shin AY. A comparison of outcomes of triceps motor branch-to-axillary nerve transfer or sural nerve interpositional grafting for isolated axillary nerve injury. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016 Aug;138(2):256e-64e.
Leechavengvongs S, Witoonchart K, Uerpairojkit C, Thuvasethakul P. Nerve transfer to deltoid muscle using the nerve to the long head of the triceps, part II: a report of 7 cases. J Hand Surg Am. 2003 Jul;28(4):633-8.
Kline DG, Kim DH. Axillary nerve repair in 99 patients with 101 stretch injuries. J Neurosurg. 2003 Oct;99(4):630-6.
McAdams TR, Dillingham MF. Surgical decompression of the quadrilateral space in overhead athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2008 Mar;36(3):528-32. Epub 2007 Nov 30.
Petrucci FS, Morelli A, Raimondi PL. Axillary nerve injuries—21 cases treated by nerve graft and neurolysis. J Hand Surg Am. 1982 May;7(3):271-8.
Baltzer HL, Spinner RJ, Bishop AT, Shin AY. Axillary nerve reconstruction: anterior-posterior exposure with sural nerve cable graft pull-through technique. Tech Hand Up Extrem Surg. 2015 Dec;19(4):168-75.
Mackinnon SE, Dellon AL, O’Brien JP, Goldberg N, Hunter DA, Seiler WA 4th, Carlton J. Selection of optimal axon ratio for nerve regeneration. Ann Plast Surg. 1989 Aug;23(2):129-34.
Terzis JK, Barmpitsioti A. Axillary nerve reconstruction in 176 posttraumatic plexopathy patients. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2010 Jan;125(1):233-47.
Wolfe SW, Johnsen PH, Lee SK, Feinberg JH. Long-nerve grafts and nerve transfers demonstrate comparable outcomes for axillary nerve injuries. J Hand Surg Am. 2014 Jul;39(7):1351-7. Epub 2014 Apr 29.
Garg R, Merrell GA, Hillstrom HJ, Wolfe SW. Comparison of nerve transfers and nerve grafting for traumatic upper plexus palsy: a systematic review and analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2011 May 4;93(9):819-29.
Bertelli JA, Ghizoni MF. Nerve transfer from triceps medial head and anconeus to deltoid for axillary nerve palsy. J Hand Surg Am. 2014 May;39(5):940-7. Epub 2014 Feb 28.
Desai MJ, Daly CA, Seiler JG 3rd, Wray WH 3rd, Ruch DS, Leversedge FJ. Radial to axillary nerve transfers: a combined case series. J Hand Surg Am. 2016 Dec;41(12):1128-34. Epub 2016 Sep 20.
Kostas-Agnantis I, Korompilias A, Vekris M, Lykissas M, Gkiatas I, Mitsionis G, Beris A. Shoulder abduction and external rotation restoration with nerve transfer. Injury. 2013 Mar;44(3):299-304. Epub 2013 Jan 18.
Moor BK, Haefeli M, Bouaicha S, Nagy L. Results after delayed axillary nerve reconstruction with interposition of sural nerve grafts. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2010 Apr;19(3):461-6. Epub 2009 Oct 2.
Burnier M, Elhassan BT, Sanchez-Sotelo J. Surgical management of irreparable rotator cuff tears: what works, what does not, and what is coming. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2019 Sep 4;101(17):1603-12.
Clouette J, Leroux T, Shanmugaraj A, Khan M, Gohal C, Veillette C, Henry P, Paul RA. The lower trapezius transfer: a systematic review of biomechanical data, techniques, and clinical outcomes. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2020 Jul;29(7):1505-12. Epub 2020 Mar 10.
Cutbush K, Peter NA, Hirpara K. All-arthroscopic latissimus dorsi transfer. Arthrosc Tech. 2016 Jun 13;5(3):e607-13.
Gerber C, Vinh TS, Hertel R, Hess CW. Latissimus dorsi transfer for the treatment of massive tears of the rotator cuff. A preliminary report. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988 Jul;232:51-61.
Ghosh S, Singh VK, Jeyaseelan L, Sinisi M, Fox M. Isolated latissimus dorsi transfer to restore shoulder external rotation in adults with brachial plexus injury. Bone Joint J. 2013 May;95-B(5):660-3.
Phipps GJ, Hoffer MM. Latissimus dorsi and teres major transfer to rotator cuff for Erb’s palsy. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 1995 Mar-Apr;4(2):124-9.
Aziz W, Singer RM, Wolff TW. Transfer of the trapezius for flail shoulder after brachial plexus injury. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1990 Jul;72(4):701-4.
Crepaldi BE, Neto JQL, Rezende MR, Júnior RM, Scarcella DS. Lower trapezius transfer for patients with brachial plexus injury. Hand (N Y). 2019 Mar;14(2):179-86. Epub 2017 Nov 6.
Elhassan B, Bishop A, Shin A, Spinner R. Shoulder tendon transfer options for adult patients with brachial plexus injury. J Hand Surg Am. 2010 Jul;35(7):1211-9.
Elhassan B, Bishop AT, Hartzler RU, Shin AY, Spinner RJ. Tendon transfer options about the shoulder in patients with brachial plexus injury. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012 Aug 1;94(15):1391-8.
Checchia C, Domos P, Grimberg J, Kany J. Current options in tendon transfers for irreparable rotator cuff tears. JBJS Rev. 2019 Feb;7(2):e6.
Elhassan B. Lower trapezius transfer for shoulder external rotation in patients with paralytic shoulder. J Hand Surg Am. 2014 Mar;39(3):556-62.
Rühmann O, Schmolke S, Bohnsack M, Carls J, Wirth CJ. Trapezius transfer in brachial plexus palsy. Correlation of the outcome with muscle power and operative technique. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005 Feb;87(2):184-90.
Rühmann O, Wirth CJ, Gossé F. [Secondary operations for improving shoulder function after brachial plexus lesion]. Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb. 1999 Jul-Aug;137(4):301-9. German.
Selim NM. Trapezius tendon transfer according to Saha after neglected complete axillary nerve injury. Acta Orthop Belg. 2012 Aug;78(4):436-41.
Gerber C, Pennington SD, Nyffeler RW. Reverse total shoulder arthroplasty. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2009 May;17(5):284-95.
Popescu IA, Bihel T, Henderson D, Martin Becerra J, Agneskirchner J, Lafosse L. Functional improvements in active elevation, external rotation, and internal rotation after reverse total shoulder arthroplasty with isolated latissimus dorsi transfer: surgical technique and midterm follow-up. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2019 Dec;28(12):2356-63. Epub 2019 Jul 9.
Colbert SH, Mackinnon S. Posterior approach for double nerve transfer for restoration of shoulder function in upper brachial plexus palsy. Hand (N Y). 2006 Dec;1(2):71-7.
Dailiana ZH, Mehdian H, Gilbert A. Surgical anatomy of spinal accessory nerve: is trapezius functional deficit inevitable after division of the nerve? J Hand Surg Br. 2001 Apr;26(2):137-41.
Terzis JK, Kostas I. Suprascapular nerve reconstruction in 118 cases of adult posttraumatic brachial plexus. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006 Feb;117(2):613-29.
Leechavengvongs S, Witoonchart K, Uerpairojkit C, Thuvasethakul P, Ketmalasiri W. Nerve transfer to biceps muscle using a part of the ulnar nerve in brachial plexus injury (upper arm type): a report of 32 cases. J Hand Surg Am. 1998 Jul;23(4):711-6.
Oberlin C, Béal D, Leechavengvongs S, Salon A, Dauge MC, Sarcy JJ. Nerve transfer to biceps muscle using a part of ulnar nerve for C5-C6 avulsion of the brachial plexus: anatomical study and report of four cases. J Hand Surg Am. 1994 Mar;19(2):232-7.
Mackinnon SE, Novak CB, Myckatyn TM, Tung TH. Results of reinnervation of the biceps and brachialis muscles with a double fascicular transfer for elbow flexion. J Hand Surg Am. 2005 Sep;30(5):978-85.
Bhandari PS, Deb P. Management of isolated musculocutaneous injury: comparing double fascicular nerve transfer with conventional nerve grafting. J Hand Surg Am. 2015 Oct;40(10):2003-6. Epub 2015 Aug 14.
Doi K, Hattori Y, Sakamoto S, Dodakundi C, Satbhai NG, Montales T. Current procedure of double free muscle transfer for traumatic total brachial plexus palsy. JBJS Essent Surg Tech. 2013 Aug 28;3(3):e16.
Elzinga K, Zuo KJ, Olson JL, Morhart M, Babicki S, Chan KM. Double free gracilis muscle transfer after complete brachial plexus injury: first Canadian experience. Plast Surg (Oakv). 2014;22(1):26-9.
Stevanovic M, Sharpe F. Functional free muscle transfer for upper extremity reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2014 Aug;134(2):257e-74e.
Ratner JA, Peljovich A, Kozin SH. Update on tendon transfers for peripheral nerve injuries. J Hand Surg Am. 2010 Aug;35(8):1371-81.
Sammer DM, Chung KC. Tendon transfers: part I. Principles of transfer and transfers for radial nerve palsy. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009 May;123(5):169e-77e.
Lee YH, Chung MS, Gong HS, Chung JY, Park JH, Baek GH. Sural nerve autografts for high radial nerve injury with nine centimeter or greater defects. J Hand Surg Am. 2008 Jan;33(1):83-6.
Shergill G, Bonney G, Munshi P, Birch R. The radial and posterior interosseous nerves. Results of 260 repairs. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2001 Jul;83(5):646-9.
Singh R, Mechelse K, Hop WC, Braakman R. Long-term results of transplantations to repair median, ulnar, and radial nerve lesions by a microsurgical interfascicular autogenous cable graft technique. Surg Neurol. 1992 Jun;37(6):425-31.
Lowe JB 3rd, Sen SK, Mackinnon SE. Current approach to radial nerve paralysis. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002 Sep 15;110(4):1099-113.
Mackinnon SE, Roque B, Tung TH. Median to radial nerve transfer for treatment of radial nerve palsy. Case report. J Neurosurg. 2007 Sep;107(3):666-71.
Brown JM, Tung TH, Mackinnon SE. Median to radial nerve transfer to restore wrist and finger extension: technical nuances. Neurosurgery. 2010 Mar;66(3):75-83; discussion 83.
Davidge KM, Yee A, Kahn LC, Mackinnon SE. Median to radial nerve transfers for restoration of wrist, finger, and thumb extension. J Hand Surg Am. 2013 Sep;38(9):1812-27. Epub 2013 Aug 6.
García-López A, Navarro R, Martinez F, Rojas A. Nerve transfers from branches to the flexor carpi radialis and pronator teres to reconstruct the radial nerve. J Hand Surg Am. 2014 Jan;39(1):50-6. Epub 2013 Dec 4.
Ray WZ, Mackinnon SE. Clinical outcomes following median to radial nerve transfers. J Hand Surg Am. 2011 Feb;36(2):201-8. Epub 2010 Dec 18.
Compton J, Owens J, Day M, Caldwell L. Systematic review of tendon transfer versus nerve transfer for the restoration of wrist extension in isolated traumatic radial nerve palsy. J Am Acad Orthop Surg Glob Res Rev. 2018 Apr 12;2(4):e001.
Bertelli JA. Nerve versus tendon transfer for radial nerve paralysis reconstruction. J Hand Surg Am. 2020 May;45(5):418-26. Epub 2020 Feb 21.
Wright JG. Revised grades of recommendation for summaries or reviews of orthopaedic surgical studies. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006 May;88(5):1161-2.
Apaydin N, Uz A, Bozkurt M, Elhan A. The anatomic relationships of the axillary nerve and surgical landmarks for its localization from the anterior aspect of the shoulder. Clin Anat. 2007 Apr;20(3):273-7.
Apaydin N, Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Duparc F. Review of the surgical anatomy of the axillary nerve and the anatomic basis of its iatrogenic and traumatic injury. Surg Radiol Anat. 2010 Mar;32(3):193-201. Epub 2009 Nov 16.
Uz A, Apaydin N, Bozkurt M, Elhan A. The anatomic branch pattern of the axillary nerve. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2007 Mar-Apr;16(2):240-4. Epub 2006 Nov 9.
Wright JG, Swiontkowski MF, Heckman JD. Introducing levels of evidence to the journal. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003 Jan;85(1):1-3.