Trends in the epidemiology of dermatophytosis in the Middle East and North Africa region.
Journal
International journal of dermatology
ISSN: 1365-4632
Titre abrégé: Int J Dermatol
Pays: England
ID NLM: 0243704
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Aug 2022
Aug 2022
Historique:
revised:
31
08
2021
received:
29
04
2021
accepted:
15
10
2021
pubmed:
13
11
2021
medline:
23
7
2022
entrez:
12
11
2021
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Dermatophytosis corresponds to a broad series of infections, mostly superficial, caused by a group of keratinophilic and keratinolytic filamentous fungi called dermatophytes. These mycoses are currently considered to be a major public health concern worldwide, particularly in developing countries such as those in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Here we compiled and discussed existing epidemiologic data on these infections in the MENA region. Most of the available studies were based on conventional diagnostic strategies and were published before the last taxonomic revision of dermatophytes. This has led to misidentifications, which might have resulted in the underestimation of the real burden of these infections in the MENA countries. Our analysis of the available literature highlights an urgent need for further studies based on reliable diagnostic tools and standard susceptibility testing methods for dermatophytosis, which represents a major challenge for these countries. This is crucial for guiding appropriate interventions and activating antifungal stewardship programs in the future.
Substances chimiques
Antifungal Agents
0
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
935-968Informations de copyright
© 2021 the International Society of Dermatology.
Références
Nweze EI, Eke IE. Dermatophytes and dermatophytosis in the eastern and southern parts of Africa. Med Mycol 2018; 56: 13-28.
Ahmadi B, Mirhendi H, Makimura K, et al. Phylogenetic analysis of dermatophyte species using DNA sequence polymorphism in calmodulin gene. Med Mycol 2016; 54: 500-514.
Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Łagowski D, Zięba P. Host- and pathogen-dependent susceptibility and predisposition to dermatophytosis. Med Microbiol 2019; 68: 823-836.
Alshawa K, Beretti JL, Lacroix C, et al. Successful identification of clinical dermatophyte and Neoscytalidium species by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 2277-2281.
Gräser Y, Monod M, Bouchara J-P, et al. New insights in dermatophyte research. Med Mycol 2018; 56: S2-S9.
de Hoog GS, Dukik K, Monod M, et al. Toward a novel multilocus phylogenetic taxonomy for the dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 5-31.
Baert F, Stubbe D, D'Hooge E, Packeu A, Hendrickx M. Updating the taxonomy of dermatophytes of the BCCM/IHEM collection according to the new atandard: a phylogenetic approach. Mycopathologia 2019; 185: 161-168.
Moubasher AH, Abdel-Sater MA, Soliman Z. Incidence and biodiversity of yeasts, dermatophytes and non-dermatophytes in superficial skin infections in Assiut. Egypt. Med Mycol 2017; 27: 166-179.
Kumar P, Latka C, Taneja B. Current antifungal therapy and drug resistance mechanisms in dermatophytes. In: Arora G, Sajid A, Chandra Kalia V (eds). Drug resistance in bacteria, fungi, malaria and cancer. Springer, 2017; 371-385.
Achterman RR, White TC. A foot in the door for dermatophyte research. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8: e1002564.
Feng J, Liu F, Wu F, et al. Tinea infection with scutula-like lesions caused by Microsporum gypseum in a SLE patient: case report and literature review. Mycopathologia 2013; 176: 255-258.
Leung AKC, Leong KF, Lam JM. Tinea imbricata: an overview. Curr Pediatr Rev 2019; 15: 170-174.
Kirsten H, Haiduk J, Nenoff P, et al. Tinea barbae profunda due to Trichophyton mentagrophytes : Case report and review. Hautarzt 2019; 70: 601-611.
Su H, Li L, Cheng B, et al. Trichophyton rubrum infection characterized by Majocchi's granuloma and deeper dermatophytosis: case report and review of published literature. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 549-554.
Guanziroli E, Pavia G, Guttadauro A, et al. Deep dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton verrucosum in an immunosuppressed patient: successful outcome with terbinafine. Mycopathologia 2019; 184: 543-545.
Wang X, Ding H, Chen Z, et al. CARD9 deficiency in a chinese man with cutaneous mucormycosis, recurrent deep dermatophytosis and a review of the literature. Mycopathologia 2020; 185: 1041-1050.
Falahati M, Akhlaghi L, Lari AR, Alaghehbandan R. Epidemiology of dermatophytoses in an area south of Tehran, Iran. Mycopathologia 2003; 156: 279-287.
Hayette MP, Sacheli R. Unusual species of dermatophytes: rarely identified or new? Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 203-213.
Qadim HH, Golforoushan F, Azimi H, Goldust M. Factors leading to dermatophytosis. Ann Parasitol 2013; 59: 99-102.
García-Romero MT, Arenas R. New insights into genes, immunity, and the occurrence of dermatophytosis. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135: 655-657.
Lanternier F, Pathan S, Vincent QB, et al. Deep dermatophytosis and inherited CARD9 deficiency. N Engl J Med 2013; 369: 1704-1714.
Shiraki Y, Ishibashi Y, Hiruma M, Nishikawa A, Ikeda S. Cytokine secretion profiles of human keratinocytes during Trichophyton tonsurans and Arthroderma benhamiae infections. Med Microbiol 2006; 55: 1175-1185.
Havlickova B, Czaika VA, Friedrich M. Epidemiological trends in skin mycoses worldwide. Mycoses 2008; 51(Suppl 4): 2-15.
Bassiri-Jahromi S. Epidemiological trends in zoophilic and geophilic fungi in Iran. Clin Exp Dermatol 2013; 38: 13-19.
Gnat S, Łagowski D, Nowakiewicz A. Major challenges and perspectives in the diagnostics and treatment of dermatophyte infections. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 129: 212-232.
Heinen M-P, Cambier L, Fiévez L, Mignon B. Are Th17 cells playing a role in immunity to dermatophytosis? Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 251-261.
Rai G, Das S, Ansari MA, et al. The interplay among Th17 and T regulatory cells in the immune dysregulation of chronic dermatophytic infection. Microb Pathog 2020; 139: 103921.
Zahura M, Afroz A, Rashid U, Khaliq S. Dermatomycoses: challenges and human immune responses. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2014; 15: 437-444.
Hesse-Macabata J, Morgner B, Morgenstern S, et al. Innate immune response of human epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts to in vitro incubation of Trichophyton benhamiae DSM 6916. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2019; 33: 1177-1188.
Hau CS, Tada Y, Kanda N, Watanabe S. Immunoresponses in dermatomycoses. J Dermatol 2015; 42: 236-244.
Celestrino GA, Reis APC, Criado PR, Benard G, Sousa MGT. Trichophyton rubrum elicits phagocytic and pro-inflammatory responses in human monocytes through Toll-Like Receptor 2. Front Microbiol 2019; 10: 2589.
Pal A, Chakravarty AK. Chapter 12 - Genes conferring immunity against fungal infections. In: Pal A, Chakravarty AK, eds. Genetics and Breeding for Disease Resistance of Livestock. vol. 12. Academic Press, 2020: 183-191.
Heinen MP, Cambier L, Antoine N, et al. Th1 and Th17 immune responses act complementarily to optimally control superficial dermatophytosis. J Invest Dermatol 2019; 139: 626-637.
Woodfolk JA, Platts-Mills TAE. Diversity of the human allergen-specific T cell repertoire associated with distinct skin test reactions: delayed-type hypersensitivity-associated major epitopes induce Th1- and Th2-dominated responses. J Immunol 2001; 167: 5412-5419.
Gupta C, Das S, Ramachandran VG, et al. Possible role of trichophytin antigen in inducing impaired immunological clearance of fungus in onychomycosis. Mycopathologia 2016; 181: 247-251.
Glocker EO, Hennigs A, Nabavi M, et al. A homozygous CARD9 mutation in a family with susceptibility to fungal infections. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1727-1735.
Drewniak A, Gazendam RP, Tool AT, et al. Invasive fungal infection and impaired neutrophil killing in human CARD9 deficiency. Blood 2013; 121: 2385-2392.
Łagowski D, Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, et al. In search of the source of dermatophytosis: epidemiological analysis of Trichophyton verrucosum infection in llamas and the breeder (case report). Zoonoses Public Health 2019; 66: 1-8.
Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Zięba P. Taxonomy of dermatophytes-the classification systems may change but the identification problems remain the same. Post Mikrobiol 2019; 58: 49-58.
Gräser Y, Scott J, Summerbell R. The new species concept in dermatophytes-a polyphasic approach. Mycopathologia 2008; 166: 239-256.
Zhan P, Liu W. The changing face of dermatophytic infections worldwide. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 77-86.
Bassyouni RH, El-Sherbiny NA, Abd El Raheem TA, Mohammed BH. Changing in the epidemiology of tinea capitis among school children in Egypt. Ann Dermatol 2017; 29: 13-19.
Ozkutuk A, Ergon C, Yulug N. Species distribution and antifungal susceptibilities of dermatophytes during a one year period at a University Hospital in Turkey. Mycoses 2007; 50: 125-129.
Ameen M. Epidemiology of superficial fungal infections. Clin Dermatol 2010; 28: 197-201.
Bitew A. Dermatophytosis: prevalence of dermatophytes and non-dermatophyte fungi from patients attending arsho advanced medical laboratory, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Dermatol Res Pract 2018; 1-6.
Kakande T, Batunge Y, Emmanuel E, et al. Prevalence of dermatophytosis and antifungal activity of ethanolic crude leaf extract of Tetradenia riparia against dermatophytes isolated from patients attending Kampala International University Teaching Hospital, Uganda. Dermatol Res Pract 2019; 1-13.
Ellabib MS, Khalifa Z, Kavanagh K. Dermatophytes and other fungi associated with skin mycoses in Tripoli, Libya. Mycoses 2002; 45: 101-104.
Morar N, Dlova NC, Gupta AK, Aboobaker J. Tinea capitis in kwa-zulu Natal, South Africa. Pediatr Dermatol 2004; 21: 444-447.
Woldeamanuel Y, Leekassa R, Chryssanthou E, Menghistu Y, Petrini B. Prevalence of tinea capitis in Ethiopian schoolchildren. Mycoses 2005; 48: 137-141.
Hay RJ. Tinea capitis: current status. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 87-93.
Hayette M-P, Sacheli R. Dermatophytosis, trends in epidemiology and diagnostic approach. Curr Fungal Infect Rep 2015; 9: 164-179.
Michaels BD, Del Rosso JQ. Tinea capitis in infants: recognition, evaluation, and management suggestions. JCAD 2012; 5: 49-59.
Bergson CL, Fernandes NC. Tinea capitis: study of asymptomatic carriers and sick adolescents, adults and elderly who live with children with the disease. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2001; 43: 87-91.
al-Duboon AH, Muhsin TM, al-Rubaiy KK. Tinea capitis in Basrah, Iraq. Mycoses 1999; 42: 331-333.
Ali-Shtayeh MS, Arda HM. A study of tinea capitis in Jordan (West Bank). J Trop Med Hyg 1986; 89: 137-141.
Ali-Shtayeh MS, Salameh AA, Abu-Ghdeib SI, Jamous RM, Khraim H. Prevalence of tinea capitis as well as of asymptomatic carriers in school children in Nablus area (Palestine). Mycoses 2002; 45: 188-194.
Shtayeh MS, Arda HM. Incidence of dermatophytosis in Jordan with special reference to tinea capitis. Mycopathologia 1985; 92: 59-62.
Zaki SM, Ibrahim N, Aoyama K, et al. Dermatophyte infections in Cairo, Egypt. Mycopathologia 2009; 167: 133-137.
Bendjaballah-Laliam A, Djazer H. Epidemiology of Tinea capitis in the suburbs of Tipasa, Algeria. J Mycol Med 2014; 24: 141-143.
Hamroune Z, Mazouz A, Benelmouffok AB, Kellou D. Evolution of tinea capitis observed in mycology laboratory of institute Pasteur of Algeria from1995 to 2015. J Mycol Med 2016; 26: 337-344.
Neji S, Makni F, Cheikhrouhou F, et al. Epidemiology of dermatophytoses in Sfax, Tunisia. Mycoses 2009; 52: 534-538.
Nawaf AM, Joshi A, Zaki A, et al. Tinea capitis among children and adolescents in the Farwaniya region of Kuwait. J Dermatol 2003; 30: 904-909.
Araj GF, Racoubian ES, Daher NK. Etiologic agents of dermatophyte infection in Lebanon. J Med Liban 2004; 52: 59-63.
Lee WJ, Sim HB, Jang YH, et al. Skin infection due to Trichophyton tonsurans still occurs in people in Korea but not as outbreaks. J Korean Med Sci 2016; 31: 296-300.
Ciesielska A, Kawa A, Kanarek K, Soboń A, Szewczyk R. Metabolomic analysis of Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporum canis during keratin degradation. Sci Rep 2021; 11: 3959.
Ali-Shtayeh MS, Yaish S, Jamous RM, Arda H, Husein EI. Updating the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections in Palestine with special reference to concomitant dermatophytosis. J Mycol Med 2015; 25: 116-122.
Razzaq Adel AA, Sultan AO, Basmiah AM, Aftab A, Nabel N. Prevalence of tinea capitis in southern Kuwait. Mycoses 2007; 50: 317-320.
Farag AGA, Hammam MA, Ibrahem RA. Epidemiology of dermatophyte infections among school children in Menoufia Governorate, Egypt. Mycoses 2018; 61: 321-325.
Shalaby MFM, El-din AN, El-Hamd MA. Isolation, identification, and in vitro antifungal susceptibility testing of dermatophytes from clinical samples at Sohag University Hospital in Egypt. Electron Physician 2016; 8: 2557-2567.
Salari S, Ayatollahi Mousavi SA, Hadizadeh S, Izadi A. Epidemiology of dermatomycoses in Kerman province, southeast of Iran: a 10-years retrospective study (2004-2014). Microb Pathog 2017; 110: 561-567.
Fallahi AA, Rezaei-Matehkolaei A, Rezaei S. Epidemiological status of dermatophytosis in Guilan, north of Iran. Curr Med Mycol 2017; 3: 20-24.
Sadeghi Tafti H, Falahati M, Kordbacheh P, et al. A survey of the etiological agents of scalp and nail dermatophytosis in Yazd, Iran in 2014-2015. Curr Med Mycol 2015; 1: 1-6.
Venugopal PV, Venugopal TV. Tinea capitis in Saudi Arabia. Int J Dermatol 1993; 32: 39-40.
Abanmi A, Bakheshwain S, El Khizzi N, et al. Characteristics of superficial fungal infections in the Riyadh region of Saudi Arabia. Int J Dermatol 2008; 47: 229-235.
Khaled JM, Golah HA, Khalel AS, Alharbi NS, Mothana RA. Dermatophyte and non dermatophyte fungi in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Biol Sci 2015; 22: 604-609.
Omidynia E, Farshchian M, Sadjjadi M, Zamanian A, Rashidpouraei R. A study of dermatophytoses in Hamadan, the governmentship of West Iran. Mycopathologia 1996; 133: 9-13.
Bassiri-Jahromi S, Khaksari AA. Epidemiological survey of dermatophytosis in Tehran, Iran, from 2000 to 2005. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2009; 75: 142-147.
Ansar A, Farshchian M, Nazeri H, Ghiasian SA. Clinico-epidemiological and mycological aspects of tinea incognito in Iran: a 16-year study. Med Mycol 2011; 52: 25-32.
Aghamirian MR, Ghiasian SA. Dermatophytoses in outpatients attending the Dermatology Center of Avicenna Hospital in Qazvin. Iran. Mycoses 2008; 51: 155-160.
Zamani S, Sadeghi G, Yazdinia F, et al. Epidemiological trends of dermatophytosis in Tehran, Iran: a five-year retrospective study. Med Mycol 2016; 26: 351-358.
Didehdar M, Shokohi T, Khansarinejad B, et al. Characterization of clinically important dermatophytes in North of Iran using PCR-RFLP on ITS region. Med Mycol 2016; 26: 345-350.
Ebrahimi M, Zarrinfar H, Naseri A, et al. Epidemiology of dermatophytosis in northeastern Iran. A subtropical region. Curr Med Mycol 2019; 5: 16-21.
Hassanzadeh Rad B, Hashemi SJ, Farasatinasab M, Atighi J. Epidemiological survey of human dermatophytosis due to zoophilic species in Tehran, Iran. Iran J Public Health 2018; 47: 1930-1936.
Farokhipor S, Ghiasian SA, Nazeri H, Kord M, Didehdar M. Characterizing the clinical isolates of dermatophytes in Hamadan city, Central west of Iran, using PCR-RLFP method. Med Mycol 2018; 28: 101-105.
Allahdadi M, Hajihossein R, Kord M, et al. Molecular characterization and antifungal susceptibility profile of dermatophytes isolated from scalp dermatophyte carriage in primary school children in Arak city, Center of Iran. Med Mycol 2019; 29: 19-23.
Kallel A, Hdider A, Fakhfakh N, et al. Tinea capitis: main mycosis child. epidemiological study on 10 years. Med Mycol 2017; 27: 345-350.
Rastegar Lari A, Akhlaghi L, Falahati M, Alaghehbandan R. Characteristics of dermatophytoses among children in an area south of Tehran, Iran. Mycoses 2005; 48: 32-37.
Chadeganipour M, Mohammadi R, Shadzi S. A 10-year study of dermatophytoses in Isfahan, Iran. J Clin Lab Anal 2016; 30: 103-107.
Sellami A, Sellami H, Makni F, et al. Childhood dermatomycoses study in Sfax Hospital, Tunisia. Mycoses 2008; 51: 451-454.
El Fekih N, Belghith I, Trabelsi S, et al. Epidemiological and etiological study of foot mycosis in Tunisia. Actas Dermosifiliogr 2012; 103: 520-524.
Toukabri N, Dhieb C, El Euch D, et al. Prevalence, etiology, and risk factors of tinea pedis and tinea unguium in Tunisia. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2017; 2017: 1-9.
Djeridane A, Djeridane Y, Ammar-Khodja A. Epidemiological and aetiological study on tinea pedis and onychomycosis in Algeria. Mycoses 2006; 49: 190-196.
Aboueisha AM, El-Mahallawy H. Public health significance of dermatophytes in Ismailia and Port Said Provinces, Egypt. Med Mycol 2013; 54: 123-129.
Yehia MA, El-Ammawi TS, Al-Mazidi KM, Abu El-Ela MA, Al-Ajmi HS. The spectrum of fungal infections with a special reference to dermatophytoses in the capital area of Kuwait during 2000-2005: a retrospective analysis. Mycopathologia 2010; 169: 241-246.
Cheikhrouhou F, Makni F, Sellami H, Besbes M, Ayadi A. Presence of dermatophytes on the nails of tinea capitis patients. Prospective study in the area of Sfax (Tunisia). Mycoses 2003; 46: 334-335.
Nenoff P, Krüger C, Ginter-Hanselmayer G, Tietz HJ. Mycology - an update. Part 1: dermatomycoses: causative agents, epidemiology and pathogenesis. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2014; 12: 188-210; quiz 210, 188-211; quiz 212.
Qiu J, Wilkens C, Barrett K, Meyer AS. Microbial enzymes catalyzing keratin degradation: classification, structure, function. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 44: 107607.
Vermout S, Tabart J, Baldo A, et al. Pathogenesis of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia 2008; 166: 267-275.
Viani FC, Dos Santos JI, Paula CR, Larson CE, Gambale W. Production of extracellular enzymes by Microsporum canis and their role in its virulence. Med Mycol 2001; 39: 463-468.
Khurana A, Sardana K, Chowdhary A. Antifungal resistance in dermatophytes: recent trends and therapeutic implications. Fungal Genet Biol 2019; 132: 103255.
Hanafy AM. In vitro antifungal drug susceptibility of dermatophytes isolated from patients in Al-Medina, Saudi Arabia. Egypt J Exp Biol (Bot) 2012; 8: 245-250.
Ebrahim HM, Asaad AM, Ahmer A. Antifungal susceptibility patterns of dermatophytes clinical isolates from dermatophytosis patients before and after therapy. Egypt J Med Microbiol 2010; 19: 41-46.
Alipour M, Mozafari NA. Terbinafine susceptibility and genotypic heterogeneity in clinical isolates of Trichophyton mentagrophytes by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Med Mycol 2015; 25: e1-e9.
Robert R, Pihet M. Conventional methods for the diagnosis of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia 2008; 166: 295-306.
Pihet M, Le Govic Y. Reappraisal of conventional diagnosis for dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 169-180.
Begum J, Mir NA, Lingaraju MC, Buyamayum B, Dev K. Recent advances in the diagnosis of dermatophytosis. J Basic Microbiol 2020; 60: 293-303.
Kupsch C, Ohst T, Pankewitz F, et al. The agony of choice in dermatophyte diagnostics-performance of different molecular tests and culture in the detection of Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton interdigitale. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 22: e711-737.
Verrier J, Monod M. Diagnosis of dermatophytosis using molecular biology. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 193-202.
Mochizuki T, Takeda K, Anzawa K. Molecular markers useful for epidemiology of dermatophytoses. J Dermatol 2015; 42: 232-235.
Mochizuki T, Takeda K, Anzawa K. Molecular markers useful for intraspecies subtyping and strain differentiation of dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 57-65.
Mirhendi H, Makimura K, de Hoog GS, et al. Translation elongation factor 1-α gene as a potential taxonomic and identification marker in dermatophytes. Med Mycol 2014; 53: 215-224.
Jacob TR, Peres NTA, Persinoti GF, et al. rpb2 is a reliable reference gene for quantitative gene expression analysis in the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. Med Mycol 2012; 50: 368-377.
Sue MJ, Yeap SK, Omar AR, Tan SW. Application of PCR-ELISA in molecular diagnosis. Biomed Res Int 2014; 2014: 1-6.
Verrier J, Pronina M, Peter C, et al. Identification of infectious agents in onychomycoses by PCR-terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 553-561.
Watanabe S, Okubo A. Specific detection of Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton interdigitale based on loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) from onychomycosis specimens. J Dermatol 2019; 46: 1179-1183.
Didehdar M, Khansarinejad B, Amirrajab N, Shokohi T. Development of a high-resolution melting analysis assay for rapid and high-throughput identification of clinically important dermatophyte species. Mycoses 2016; 59: 442-449.
Djeridane A, Djeridane Y, Ammar-Khodja A. A clinicomycological study of fungal foot infections among Algerian military personnel. Clin Exp Dermatol 2007; 32: 60-63.
Tartor YH, Abo Hashem ME, Enany S. Towards a rapid identification and a novel proteomic analysis for dermatophytes from human and animal dermatophytosis. Mycoses 2019; 62: 1116-1126.
Fatahinia M, Jafarpour S, Rafiei A, et al. Mycological aspects of onychomycosis in Khuzestan Province, Iran: a shift from dermatophytes towards yeasts. Curr Med Mycol 2017; 3: 26-31.
Tainwala R, Sharma Y. Pathogenesis of dermatophytoses. Indian J Dermatol 2011; 56: 259-261.
Andrews MD, Burns M. Common tinea infections in children. Am Fam Physician 2008; 77: 1415-1420.
Moriarty B, Hay R, Morris-Jones R. The diagnosis and management of tinea. BMJ 2012; 345: e4380.
Rashidian S, Falahati M, Kordbacheh P, et al. A study on etiologic agents and clinical manifestations of dermatophytosis in Yazd, Iran. Curr Med Mycol 2015; 1: 20-25.
Dogra S, Narang T. Emerging atypical and unusual presentations of dermatophytosis in India. Clin Dermatol Rev 2017; 1: 12-18.
Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Lagowski D, Troscianczyk A, Zieba P. Multiple-strain Trichophyton mentagrophytes infection in a silver fox (Vulpes vulpes) from a breeding farm. Med Mycol 2019; 57: 171-180.
Cafarchia C, Iatta R, Latrofa MS, Gräser Y, Otranto D. Molecular epidemiology, phylogeny and evolution of dermatophytes. Infect Genet Evol 2013; 20: 336-351.
Peres NT, Maranhão FC, Rossi A, Martinez-Rossi NM. Dermatophytes: host-pathogen interaction and antifungal resistance. An Bras Dermatol 2010; 85: 657-667.
Jachiet M, Lanternier F, Rybojad M, et al. Posaconazole treatment of extensive skin and nail dermatophytosis due to autosomal recessive deficiency of CARD9. JAMA Dermatol 2015; 151: 192-194.
Steiner UC, Trüeb RM, Schad K, et al. Trichophyton rubrum-induced Majocchi's granuloma in a heart transplant recipient. A therapeutic challenge. J Dermatol Case Rep 2012; 6: 70-72.
Gupta AK, Cooper EA. Update in antifungal therapy of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia 2008; 166: 353-367.
No authors listed. LiverTox: clinical and research information on drug-induced liver injury [Internet]. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2012.
Park N-H, Shin K-H, Kang MK. 34 - Antifungal and antiviral agents. In: Dowd FJ, Johnson BS, Mariotti AJ, eds. Pharmacology and therapeutics for dentistry (Seventh Edition). Mosby, 2017: 488-503.
Singh A, Singh P, Meis JF, Chowdhary A. In vitro activity of the novel antifungal olorofim against dermatophytes and opportunistic moulds including Penicillium and Talaromyces species. J Antimicrob Chemother 2021; 5: 1229-1233.
Martinez-Rossi NM, Bitencourt TA, Peres NTA, et al. Dermatophyte resistance to antifungal drugs: mechanisms and prospectus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9: 1108.
Ghelardi E, Celandroni F, Gueye SA, et al. Potential of ergosterol synthesis inhibitors to cause resistance or cross-resistance in Trichophyton rubrum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58: 2825-2829.
Taghipour S, Shamsizadeh F, Pchelin IM, et al. Emergence of terbinafine resistant Trichophyton mentagrophytes in Iran, harboring mutations in the squalene epoxidase (SQLE) gene. Infect Drug Resist 2020; 13: 845-850.
Fattahi A, Shirvani F, Ayatollahi A, et al. Multidrug-resistant Trichophyton mentagrophytes genotype VIII in an Iranian family with generalized dermatophytosis: report of four cases and review of literature. Int J Dermatol 2020; 60: 686-692.
Süß A, Uhrlaß S, Ludes A, et al. Extensive tinea corporis due to a terbinafine-resistant Trichophyton mentagrophytes isolate of the Indian genotype in a young infant from Bahrain in Germany. Hautarzt 2019; 70: 888-896.
Lopes G, Pinto E. Natural products: an alternative to conventional therapy for dermatophytosis? Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 143-167.
Soares LA, de Cássia Orlandi Sardi J, Gullo FP, et al. Anti dermatophytic therapy-prospects for the discovery of new drugs from natural products. Braz J Microbiol 2013; 44: 1035-1041.
Park MJ, Gwak KS, Yang I, et al. Antifungal activities of the essential oils in Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. et Perry and Leptospermum petersonii Bailey and their constituents against various dermatophytes. J Microbiol 2007; 45: 460-465.
Cardile V, Russo A, Formisano C, et al. Essential oils of Salvia bracteata and Salvia rubifolia from Lebanon: chemical composition, antimicrobial activity and inhibitory effect on human melanoma cells. J Ethnopharmacol 2009; 126: 265-272.
Nazzaro F, Fratianni F, Coppola R, De Feo V. Essential oils and antifungal activity. Pharmaceuticals 2017; 10: 86.
Tahany M, Hegazy A, Sayed AM, et al. Study on combined antimicrobial activity of some biologically active constituents from wild Moringa peregrina Forssk. J Yeast Fungal Res 2010; 1: 15-24.
Mahboubi M, HeidaryTabar R, Mahdizadeh E. The anti-dermatophyte activity of Zataria multiflora essential oils. J Mycol Med 2017; 27: 232-237.
Jamalian A, Shams-Ghahfarokhi M, Jaimand K, et al. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of Matricaria recutita flower essential oil against medically important dermatophytes and soil-borne pathogens. Med Mycol 2012; 22: 308-315.
Cavaleiro C, Pinto E, Gonçalves MJ, Salgueiro L. Antifungal activity of Juniperus essential oils against dermatophyte, Aspergillus and Candida strains. J Appl Microbiol 2006; 100: 1333-1338.
El Omari K, Hamze M, Alwan S, Jama C, Chihib NE. Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Micromeria barbata an endemic lebanese Micromeria species collected at North Lebanon. J Mater Environ Sci 2016; 7: 4158-4167.
Gomes NGM, Oliveira AP, Cunha D, Pereira DM, Valentão P. Flavonoid composition of Salacia senegalensis (Lam.) DC. leaves, evaluation of antidermatophytic effects, and potential amelioration of the associated inflammatory response. Molecules 2019; 24: 2530.
Danielli LJ, Pippi B, Duarte JA, et al. Antifungal mechanism of action of Schinus lentiscifolius Marchand essential oil and its synergistic effect in vitro with terbinafine and ciclopirox against dermatophytes. J Pharm Pharmacol 2018; 70: 1216-1227.
Mahboubi M, Heidary Tabar R, Mahdizadeh E. Chemical composition and antifungal activities of Ziziphora tenuir and Z. clinopodioides essential oils against dermatophytes. Herba Polonica 2018; 64: 37-45.
Ribeiro L, de Souza A, Priscila Kiill C, et al. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems for dermatomycosis treatment. Curr Nanosci 2012; 8: 512-519.
Barot BS, Parejiya PB, Patel HK, Gohel MC, Shelat PK. Microemulsion-based gel of terbinafine for the treatment of onychomycosis: optimization of formulation using D-optimal design. AAPS PharmSciTech 2012; 13: 184-192.
El-sherif NI, Shamma RN, Abdelbary G. In-situ gels and nail lacquers as potential delivery systems for treatment of onychomycosis. A comparative study. J Drug Del Sci Tech 2018; 43: 253-261.
Dhamoon RK, Popli H, Gupta M. Novel drug delivery strategies for the treatment of onychomycosis. Pharm Nanotechnol 2019; 7: 24-38.
Ogliari KS, Marinowic D, Brum DE, Loth F. Stem cells in dermatology. An Bras Dermatol 2014; 89: 286-291.
Herzog EL, Chai L, Krause DS. Plasticity of marrow-derived stem cells. Blood 2003; 102: 3483-3493.
Niezgoda A, Niezgoda P, Nowowiejska L, et al. Properties of skin stem cells and their potential clinical applications in modern dermatology. Eur J Dermatol 2017; 27: 227-236.
Corvilain E, Casanova JL, Puel A. Inherited CARD9 deficiency: invasive disease caused by Ascomycete fungi in previously healthy children and adults. J Clin Immunol 2018; 38: 656-693.
Liang P, Wang X, Wang R, et al. CARD9 deficiencies linked to impaired neutrophil functions against Phialophora verrucosa. Mycopathologia 2015; 179: 347-357.
Hsu YM, Zhang Y, You Y, et al. The adaptor protein CARD9 is required for innate immune responses to intracellular pathogens. Nat Immunol 2007; 8: 198-205.
Queiroz-Telles F, Mercier T, Maertens J, et al. Successful allogenic stem cell transplantation in patients with inherited CARD9 deficiency. J Clin Immunol 2019; 39: 462-469.
Mukherjee PK, Leidich SD, Isham N, et al. Clinical Trichophyton rubrum strain exhibiting primary resistance to terbinafine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 82-86.
Martinez-Rossi NM, Peres NT, Rossi A. Antifungal resistance mechanisms in dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2008; 166: 369-383.
Manzano-Gayosso P, Méndez-Tovar LJ, Hernández-Hernández F, López-Martínez R. Antifungal resistance: an emerging problem in Mexico. Gac Med Mex 2008; 144: 23-26.
Smijs TG, Pavel S. The susceptibility of dermatophytes to photodynamic treatment with special focus on Trichophyton rubrum. Photochem Photobiol 2011; 87: 2-13.
Afshar P, Vahedi L, Ghasemi M, Mardanshahi A. Epidemiology of tinea capitis in northeast Iran: a retrospective analysis from 1998 to 2012. Int J Dermatol 2016; 55: 640-644.
Benmezdad A, Moulahem T, Benyezzar M, et al. Tinea capitis in the University Hospital of Constantine (Algeria). Med Mycol 2012; 22: 354-356.
Kheffache H, Seklaoui N, Bouchara JP, Boukhemza-Zemmouri N, Boukhemza M. Tinea capitis at the University Hospital of Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria, and first isolation of Trichophyton tonsurans. Med Mycol 2020; 101040.
Abd Elmegeed AS, Ouf SA, Moussa TA, Eltahlawi SM. Dermatophytes and other associated fungi in patients attending to some hospitals in Egypt. Braz J Microbiol 2015; 46: 799-805.
Omar AA. Ringworm of the scalp in primary-school children in Alexandria: infection and carriage. East Mediterr Health J 2000; 6: 961-967.
Ali-Shtayeh MS, Arda HM, Abu-Ghdeib SI. Epidemiological study of tinea capitis in schoolchildren in the Nablus area (West Bank). Mycoses 1998; 41: 243-248.
Saghrouni F, Bougmiza I, Gheith S, et al. Mycological and epidemiological aspects of tinea capitis in the Sousse region of Tunisia. Ann Dermatol Venereol 2011; 138: 557-563.
Aghamirian M, Ghiasian SA. A clinico-epidemiological study on tinea gladiatorum in Iranian wrestlers and mat contamination by dermatophytes. Mycoses 2009; 54: 248-253.
Khosravi AR, Mansouri P. Onychomycosis in Tehran, Iran: prevailing fungi and treatment with itraconazole. Mycopathologia 2001; 150: 9-13.
Kazemi A. Tinea unguium in the north-west of Iran (1996-2004). Rev Iberoam Micol 2007; 24: 113-117.
Hashemi SJ, Gerami M, Zibafar E, et al. Onychomycosis in Tehran: mycological study of 504 patients. Mycoses 2010; 53: 251-255.
Aghamirian MR, Ghiasian SA. Onychomycosis in Iran: epidemiology, causative agents and clinical features. Nihon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi 2010; 51: 23-29.
Chadeganipour M, Nilipour S, Ahmadi G. Study of onychomycosis in Isfahan, Iran. Mycoses 2010; 53: 153-157.
Mikaeili A, Karimi I. The incidence of onychomycosis infection among patients referred to hospitals in Kermanshah province, Western Iran. Iran J Public Health 2013; 42: 320-325.
Afshar P, Khodavaisy S, Kalhori S, Ghasemi M, Razavyoon T. Onychomycosis in north-east of Iran. Iran J Microbiol 2014; 6: 98-103.
Chadeganipour M, Mohammadi R. Causative agents of onychomycosis: A 7-year study. J Clin Lab Anal 2016; 30: 1013-1020.
Soltani M, Khosravi AR, Shokri H, Sharifzadeh A, Balal A. A study of onychomycosis in patients attending a dermatology center in Tehran, Iran. Med Mycol 2015; 25: e81-e87.
Babayani M, Salari S, Hashemi SJ, Ghasemi Nejad Almani P, Fattahi A. Onychomycosis due to dermatophytes species in Iran: prevalence rates, causative agents, predisposing factors and diagnosis based on microscopic morphometric findings. Med Mycol 2018; 28: 45-50.
El Sayed F, Ammoury A, Haybe RF, Dhaybi R. Onychomycosis in Lebanon: a mycological survey of 772 patients. Mycoses 2006; 49: 216-219.
Halim I, El Kadioui F, Soussi Abdallaoui M. Onychomycosis in Casablanca (Morocco). Med Mycol 2013; 23: 9-14.
Segal R, Shemer A, Hochberg M, et al. Onychomycosis in Israel: epidemiological aspects. Mycoses 2015; 58: 133-139.
Shahzad M, Alzolibani AA, Robaee AA, et al. Onychomycosis in Qassim region of Saudi Arabia: a clinicoaetiologic correlation. J Clin Diagn Res 2014; 8: Yc01-04.
Anane S, Chtourou O, Chedi A, et al. Onychomycoses chez les sujets âgés. Annal Dermatol Venereol 2007; 134: 743-747.
Dhib I, Fathallah A, Yaacoub A, et al. Clinical and mycological features of onychomycosis in central Tunisia: a 22 years retrospective study (1986-2007). Mycoses 2013; 56: 273-280.
Youssef AB, Kallel A, Azaiz Z, et al. Onychomycosis: which fungal species are involved? experience of the laboratory of parasitology-mycology of the Rabta Hospital of Tunis. Med Mycol 2018; 28: 651-654.
Nsanze H, Lestringant GG, Mustafa N, Usmani MA. Aetiology of onychomycosis in Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. Mycoses 1995; 38: 421-424.
Gupta AK, Foley KA, Versteeg SG. New antifungal agents and new formulations against dermatophytes. Mycopathologia 2017; 182: 127-141.
Gupta AK, Chaudhry M, Elewski B. Tinea corporis, tinea cruris, tinea nigra, and piedra. Dermatol Clin 2003; 21: 395-400.
Gupta AK, Daigle D, Foley KA. Network meta-analysis of onychomycosis treatments. Skin Appendage Disord 2015; 1: 74-81.
Hu Z, Zhang J, Cheng X. Antifungal efficiency of miconazole and econazole and the interaction with transport protein: a comparative study. Pharm Biol 2015; 53: 251-261.
van Zuuren EJ, Fedorowicz Z, El-Gohary M. Evidence-based topical treatments for tinea cruris and tinea corporis: a summary of a Cochrane systematic review. Br J Dermatol 2015; 172: 616-641.
Choudhary S, Bisati S, Singh A, Koley S. Efficacy and safety of terbinafine hydrochloride 1% cream vs. sertaconazole nitrate 2% cream in tinea corporis and tinea cruris: a comparative therapeutic trial. Indian J Dermatol 2013; 58: 457-460.
Choudhary SV, Aghi T, Bisati S. Efficacy and safety of terbinafine hydrochloride 1% cream vs eberconazole nitrate 1% cream in localised tinea corporis and tinea cruris. Indian Dermatol Online J 2014; 5: 128-131.
Gupta AK, Daigle D. A critical appraisal of once-daily topical luliconazole for the treatment of superficial fungal infections. Infect Drug Resist 2016; 9: 1-6.
Alkeswani A, Cantrell W, Elewski B. Treatment of tinea capitis. Skin Appendage Disord 2019; 5: 201-210.
Mabona U, Viljoen A, Shikanga E, Marston A, Van Vuuren S. Antimicrobial activity of southern African medicinal plants with dermatological relevance: from an ethnopharmacological screening approach, to combination studies and the isolation of a bioactive compound. J Ethnopharmacol 2013; 148: 45-55.
Shamim S, Ahmed SW, Azhar I. Antifungal activity of Allium, Aloe, and Solanum species. Pharm Biol 2004; 42: 491-498.
Kurdelas RR, Lima B, Tapia A, et al. Antifungal activity of extracts and prenylated coumarins isolated from Baccharis darwinii Hook & Arn. (Asteraceae). Molecules 15: 4898-4907.
Mahboubi M, Kashani LM. The anti-dermatophyte activity of Commiphora molmol. Pharm Biol 2016; 54: 720-725.
Ayatollahi Mousavi SA, Kazemi A. In vitro and in vivo antidermatophytic activities of some Iranian medicinal plants. Med Mycol 2015; 53: 852-859.
Mbaveng AT, Ngameni B, Kuete V, et al. Antimicrobial activity of the crude extracts and five flavonoids from the twigs of Dorstenia barteri (Moraceae). J Ethnopharmacol 2008; 116: 483-489.
Khoury M, El Beyrouthy M, Ouaini N, et al. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb. growing wild in Lebanon. Chem Biodivers 2014; 11: 825-830.
Aljabre SH, Randhawa MA, Akhtar N, et al. Antidermatophyte activity of ether extract of Nigella sativa and its active principle, thymoquinone. J Ethnopharmacol 2005; 101: 116-119.
Ramirez J, Cartuche L, Morocho V, Aguilar S, Malagon O. Antifungal activity of raw extract and flavanons isolated from Piper ecuadorense from Ecuador. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia 2013; 23: 370-373.
Souza-Moreira TM, Severi JA, Rodrigues ER, et al. Flavonoids from Plinia cauliflora (Mart.) Kausel (Myrtaceae) with antifungal activity. Nat Prod Res 2019; 33: 2579-2582.
Reuter J, Wölfle U, Korting HC, Schempp C. Which plant for which skin disease? Part 2: dermatophytes, chronic venous insufficiency, photoprotection, actinic keratoses, vitiligo, hair loss, cosmetic indications. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2010; 8: 866-873.
Youmsi Fokouo R, Tsouh Fokou P, Jiatsa Mbouna C, Boyom F. Antidermatophyte activity of Syzygium aromaticum, Petroselinum crispum, and Tetrapleura tetraptera. Biomed Biotechnol Res J 2020; 4: 55-60.
Vahdani M, Faridi P, Zarshenas MM, et al. Major compounds and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from five Iranian endemic medicinal plants. Pharmacogn J 2011; 3: 48-53.
Nciki S, Vuuren S, van Eyk A, de Wet H. Plants used to treat skin diseases in northern Maputaland, South Africa: antimicrobial activity and in vitro permeability studies. Pharm Biol 2016; 54: 2420-2436.
Svetaz L, Agüero M, Alvarez S, et al. Antifungal activity of Zuccagnia punctata Cav.: evidence for the mechanism of action. Planta Med 2007; 73: 1074-1080.