Metal contamination in alkaline Phantom Lake (Flin Flon, Manitoba, Canada) generates strong responses in multiple paleolimnological proxies.

The copper-zinc smelter at Flin Flon (Manitoba) operated between 1930 and 2010 and emitted large amounts of metal(loid)s and sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere, damaging the surrounding terrestrial landscapes and depositing airborne industrial pollutants into aquatic ecosystems. However, the extent of biological impairment in regional lakes is largely unknown. Here, we analysed biological and geochemical proxies preserved in a dated sediment core from Phantom Lake, collected seven years after the smelter closed in 2010. Our objectives were to determine how smelting history affected long-term trends in (1) sedimentary elements, (2) biota across multiple trophic levels, and (3) spectrally-inferred chlorophyll a and lake-water total organic carbon. The effects of smelting activities were clearest in the diatom record, in concordance with modest responses in chironomid and cladoceran assemblages. Several metal(loid)s were naturally high and exceeded sediment quality guidelines during the pre-smelting era. With the opening of the smelter, metal(loid) concentrations in sediments increased through the 1930s, peaked in the 1960s, and declined thereafter with technological improvements but remained above background to this day. Although modest declines in inferred lake-water total organic carbon indicate reduced terrestrial carbon supply following sulphate deposition in the catchment, the diatom record showed no evidence of acidification as the lake was and remained well-buffered. Pre-smelting diatom and invertebrate assemblages were diverse and indicated oligo-mesotrophic conditions. Smelting was associated with the loss of metal-sensitive biological indicators and the emergence of assemblages dominated by metal-tolerant, generalist taxa. Diatoms tracked substantial reductions in aerial emissions since the 1990s, particularly after the smelter closed, but also indicated that the biological effects of metal pollution persist in Phantom Lake. Examining the effects of a base metal smelter on a well-buffered lake offered insights into multi-trophic level responses to severe metal contamination and potential recovery without the confounding effects of concurrent changes in lake acidity.

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Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.