Clinical translation of nanomedicines: Challenges, opportunities, and keys.

Despite the massive interest and recent developments in the field of nanomedicine, only a limited number of formulations have found their way to the clinics. This shortcoming reveals the challenges facing the clinical translation of this technology. In the current article, we summarize and evaluate the status, market situation, and clinical profiles of the reported nanomedicines, the shortcomings limiting their clinical translation, as well as some approaches designed to break through this barrier. Moreover, some emerging technologies that have the potential to compete with nanomedicines are highlighted. Lastly, we identify the key factors that should be considered in nanomedicine-related research to be clinically-translatable. These can be classified into five areas: rational design during the research and development stage, the recruitment of representative preclinical models, careful design of clinical trials, development of specific and uniform regulatory protocols, and calls for non-classic sponsorship. This new field of endeavor was firmly established during the last two decades and more in-depth progress is expected in the coming years.

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Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.