Acute Upper Non-variceal and Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding.
Bleeding peptic ulcer
Diverticulosis
Lower GI hemorrhage
Middle GI hemorrhage
Non-variceal bleeding
Upper GI hemorrhage
Journal
Journal of gastrointestinal surgery : official journal of the Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract
ISSN: 1873-4626
Titre abrégé: J Gastrointest Surg
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 9706084
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
04 2022
04 2022
Historique:
received:
31
10
2021
accepted:
17
01
2022
pubmed:
28
1
2022
medline:
23
4
2022
entrez:
27
1
2022
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Acute gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding is a common surgical emergency requiring hospital admission and associated with high morbidity and mortality. Appropriate decision-making is essential to make a prompt diagnosis, accurate risk assessment, and proper resuscitation of patients with gastrointestinal bleeding. Despite multiple randomized trials and meta-analyses, there is still controversy on various management issues like appropriate risk stratification, the timing of endoscopy, choosing an appropriate endoscopic, and radiological intervention in these groups of patients. As the usage of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antiplatelet, and antithrombotic agents is common in patients with gastrointestinal bleeding, the physician is challenged with proper management of these drugs. The present review summarizes the current strategies for risk stratification, localization of bleeding source, endoscopic and radiological intervention in patients with acute nonvariceal upper GI, middle GI, and lower GI bleeding.
Identifiants
pubmed: 35083723
doi: 10.1007/s11605-022-05258-4
pii: 10.1007/s11605-022-05258-4
doi:
Substances chimiques
Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal
0
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
932-949Informations de copyright
© 2022. The Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract.
Références
Kurien M, Lobo AJ. Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Clin Med Lond Engl. 2015 Oct;15(5):481–5.
doi: 10.7861/clinmedicine.15-5-481
Bai Y, Li ZS. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (2015, Nanchang, China). J Dig Dis. 2016 Feb;17(2):79–87.
pubmed: 26853440
doi: 10.1111/1751-2980.12319
Kim MS, Moon HS, Kwon IS, Park JH, Kim JS, Kang SH, et al. Validation of a new risk score system for non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. BMC Gastroenterol [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Oct 3];20:193. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7301517/
Stanley AJ, Laine L. Management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding. BMJ. 2019 25;364:l536.
Alzoubaidi D, Lovat LB, Haidry R. Management of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: where are we in 2018? Frontline Gastroenterol. 2019 Jan;10(1):35–42.
pubmed: 30651955
doi: 10.1136/flgastro-2017-100901
Pioppo L, Bhurwal A, Reja D, Tawadros A, Mutneja H, Goel A, et al. Incidence of Non-variceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding Worsens Outcomes with Acute Coronary Syndrome: Result of a National Cohort. Dig Dis Sci. 2021 Apr;66(4):999–1008.
pubmed: 32328894
doi: 10.1007/s10620-020-06266-7
Anchu AC, Mohsina S, Sureshkumar S, Mahalakshmy T, Kate V. External validation of scoring systems in risk stratification of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Indian J Gastroenterol Off J Indian Soc Gastroenterol. 2017 Mar;36(2):105–12.
doi: 10.1007/s12664-017-0740-x
Tarasconi A, Coccolini F, Biffl WL, Tomasoni M, Ansaloni L, Picetti E, et al. Perforated and bleeding peptic ulcer: WSES guidelines. World J Emerg Surg WJES [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Oct 3];15:3. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6947898/
Bhutia KD, Lamtha SC. Retrospective study of etiology of non variceal acute gastrointestinal bleeding in Eastern Himalayan region of india in Sikkim. J Fam Med Prim Care. 2019 Feb;8(2):573–5.
doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_330_18
Alruzug IM, Aldarsouny TA, Semaan T, Aldaher MK, AlMustafa A, Azzam N, et al. Time trends of causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding and endoscopic findings. Saudi J Gastroenterol Off J Saudi Gastroenterol Assoc [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Oct 3];27(1):28–34. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8083243/
Ye Z, Reintam Blaser A, Lytvyn L, Wang Y, Guyatt GH, Mikita JS, et al. Gastrointestinal bleeding prophylaxis for critically ill patients: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2020;368:l6722.
Malfertheiner P, Schulz C. Peptic Ulcer: Chapter Closed? Dig Dis [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021];38(2):112–6. Available from: https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/505367
Mujtaba S, Chawla S, Massaad JF. Diagnosis and Management of Non-Variceal Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage: A Review of Current Guidelines and Future Perspectives. J Clin Med [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Oct 5];9(2):402. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7074258/
Rajanthran SK, Singh HC, Than DJ, Hayati F. Dieulafoy’s lesion: an unexpected and rare cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. BMJ Case Rep. 2020 23;13(12):e240905.
Aveiro M, Rodrigues T, Rabadão T, Ferreira F, Teixeira M, Oliveira A, et al. The Use of Thalidomide in Severe Refractory Anaemia Due to Gastric Antral Vascular Ectasia (GAVE) in Cirrhosis? Eur J Case Rep Intern Med. 2020;7(12):002099.
Aguayo WG, Moyon FX, Molina GA, Moyon MA, Rivadeneira DJ, Rojas CL, et al. A bleeding GIST in pandemic times, a cooperative approach to a delayed complication, a case report. Int J Surg Case Rep [Internet]. 2020 Dec 2 [cited 2021 Oct 3];77:880–4. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7732962/
Gordon AC, Agarwal M. Primary aorto-enteric fistula. Int J Surg Case Rep [Internet]. 2015 Dec 17 [cited 2021 Oct 3];19:60–2. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4756079/
Abiko T, Ebihara Y, Takeuchi M, Sakamoto H, Homma H, Hirano S. Hemobilia-a rare complication after laparoscopic cholecystectomy-. Surg Case Rep [Internet]. 2020 May 5 [cited 2021 Oct 3];6:91. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7200960/
Yashavanth HS, Jagtap N, Singh JR, Ramchandani M, Lakhtakia S, Tandan M, et al. Hemosuccus Pancreaticus: A systematic approach. J Gastroenterol Hepatol [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 3];36(8):2101–6. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/ https://doi.org/10.1111/jgh.15404
Cui H-Y, Jiang C-H, Dong J, Wen Y, Chen Y-W. Hemosuccus pancreaticus caused by gastroduodenal artery pseudoaneurysm associated with chronic pancreatitis: A case report and review of literature. World J Clin Cases [Internet]. 2021 Jan 6 [cited 2021 Oct 5];9(1):236–44. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7809673/
Sinduja R, Vijayakumar C, Sudharshan M, Kumbhar US, Naik BM, Naik D. Pseudoaneurysm of the gastroduodenal artery secondary to diverticulitis of the first part of duodenum: a rare presentation of upper gastrointestinal bleed. BMJ Case Rep. 2021 Jan 28;14(1):e238232.
Prasad A, Prasad A, Kumar P, Kumar S. Post-traumatic Pseudoaneurysm of Hepatic Artery: An Unusual Cause of Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Indian Pediatr. 2020 Apr 15;57(4):370–2.
pubmed: 32284484
doi: 10.1007/s13312-020-1796-8
Liyen Cartelle A, Uy PP, Yap JEL. Acute Gastric Hemorrhage due to Gastric Cancer Eroding Into a Splenic Artery Pseudoaneurysm: Two Dangerously Rare Etiologies of Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Cureus. 2020 Sep 27;12(9):e10685.
Gajjar B, Aasen T, Goenka P, Gayam V. Massive Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding Following LAMS (Lumen-Apposing Metal Stent) Placement. J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep. 2020 Dec;8:2324709620965800.
pubmed: 33054441
pmcid: 7570288
Pouwels S, Kanters C, le Haen PA, Poelman M. Acute biliary pancreatitis masking haemobilia due to a false aneurysm of the right hepatic artery after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. BMJ Case Rep. 2018 Aug 16;2018:bcr-2017–223137.
Mehershahi S, Jog A, Ronderos DM, Shaikh D, Ihimoyan A. Cameron Ulcers: Rare Case of Overt Upper Gastrointestinal Bleed in a Patient with Alcohol Use Disorder. Cureus. 2020 Apr 12;12(4):e7644.
Du Y, Zhang W, Ma Y, Qiu Z. Gastritis cystica profunda: a case report and literature review. Ann Palliat Med. 2020 Sep;9(5):3668–77.
pubmed: 33065804
doi: 10.21037/apm-20-1253
Rao S, Tsai H, Tsai E, Nakanishi Y, Bulat R. Strongyloides stercoralis Hyperinfection Syndrome as a Cause of Fatal Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage. ACG Case Rep J. 2019 Mar;6(3):1–3.
pubmed: 31620504
doi: 10.14309/crj.0000000000000018
Sung JJ, Chiu PW, Chan FKL, Lau JY, Goh KL, Ho LH et al. Asia-Pacific working group consensus on non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: an update 2018. Gut. 2018 Oct;67(10):1757-1768.
pubmed: 29691276
doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316276
Yang HM, Jeon SW, Jung JT, et al. Comparison of scoring systems for nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a multicentre prospective cohort study. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016; 31:119–25.
pubmed: 26211939
doi: 10.1111/jgh.13057
Stanley AJ, Laine L, Dalton HR, et al. Comparison of risk scoring systems for patients presenting with upper gastrointestinal bleeding: international multicentre prospective study. BMJ 2017;356: i6432.
Kola G, Sureshkumar S, Mohsina S, Sreenath GS, Kate V. Restrictive versus liberal transfusion strategy in upper gastrointestinal bleeding: A randomized controlled trial. Saudi J Gastroenterol. 2021 Jan-Feb;27(1):13–19.
Jairath V, Kahan BC, Gray A, et al. Restrictive versus liberal blood transfusion for acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding (TRIGGER): a pragmatic, open-label, cluster randomised feasibility trial. Lancet 2015; 386:137-144.
pubmed: 25956718
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61999-1
Odutayo A, Desborough MJ, Trivella M, Stanley AJ, Dorée C, Collins GS et al. Restrictive versus liberal blood transfusion for gastrointestinal bleeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017 May;2(5):354-360.
pubmed: 28397699
doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(17)30054-7
Barkun AN, Almadi M, Kuipers EJ, et al. Management of Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Guideline Recommendations From the International Consensus Group. Ann Intern Med 2019; 171:805-822.
pubmed: 31634917
pmcid: 7233308
doi: 10.7326/M19-1795
Bardou M, Toubouti Y, Benhaberou-Brun D, Rahme E, Barkun AN. Meta-analysis: proton-pump inhibition in high-risk patients with acute peptic ulcer bleeding. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 21:677- 686.
pubmed: 15771753
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02391.x
Laine L, McQuaid KR. Endoscopic therapy for bleeding ulcers: an evidence-based approach based on meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009; 7:33-47.
pubmed: 18986845
doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2008.08.016
Mullady DK, Wang AY, Waschke KA. AGA Clinical Practice Update on Endoscopic Therapies for Non-Variceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Expert Review. Gastroenterology. 2020 Sep;159(3):1120-1128.
pubmed: 32574620
doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.05.095
Gralnek IM, Dumonceau JM, Kuipers EJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline. Endoscopy 2015;47: a1-a46.
pubmed: 26417980
doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1393172
Sachar H, Vaidya K, Laine L. Intermittent vs continuous proton pump inhibitor therapy for high-risk bleeding ulcers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med 2014; 174:1755-1762.
pubmed: 25201154
pmcid: 4415726
doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.4056
Lau JYW, Yu Y, Tang RSY, Chan HCH, Yip HC, Chan SM et al. Timing of Endoscopy for Acute Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding. N Engl J Med. 2020 Apr 2;382(14):1299-1308.
pubmed: 32242355
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1912484
Vergara M, Bennett C, Calvet X, et al. Epinephrine injection versus epinephrine injection and a second endoscopic method in high-risk bleeding ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014:CD005584.
Toka B, Eminler AT, Karacaer C, et al. Comparison of monopolar hemostatic forceps with soft coagulation versus hemoclip for peptic ulcer bleeding: a randomized trial (with video). Gastrointest Endosc 2019; 89:792-802.
pubmed: 30342026
doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2018.10.011
Sung JJ, Tsoi KK, Lai LH, et al. Endoscopic clipping versus injection and thermocoagulation in the treatment of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Gut 2007; 56:1364-73.
pubmed: 17566018
pmcid: 2000277
doi: 10.1136/gut.2007.123976
Schmidt A, Goelder S, Messmann H, et al. 62 over-the-scope-clips versus standard endoscopic therapy in patients with recurrent peptic ulcer bleeding and a prospective randomized, multicentre trial (Sting). Gastrointest Endosc 2017;85: AB50.
Chan SM, Chiu PW, Teoh AY, et al. Use of the over-the-scope clip for treatment of refractory upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a case series. Endoscopy 2014; 46:428–31.
pubmed: 24505017
doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1364932
Thayalasekaran S, Dixon S, Mundre P, et al. Mo1118 Hemospray use in the management of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: a 2-year experience across two teaching hospitals in the North and South of England. Gut 2017;66: A232.
Haddara S, Jacques J, Lecleire S, et al. A novel hemostatic powder for upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a multicentre study (the “GRAPHE” registry). Endoscopy 2016; 48:1084–95.
pubmed: 27760437
doi: 10.1055/s-0042-116148
Sinha R, Lockman KA, Church NI, et al. The use of hemostatic spray as an adjunct to conventional hemostatic measures in high-risk nonvariceal upper GI bleeding (with video). Gastrointest Endosc 2016; 84:900–6.
pubmed: 27108061
doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2016.04.016
Chen YI, Barkun AN. Hemostatic Powders in Gastrointestinal Bleeding: A Systematic Review. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2015; 25:535-52.
pubmed: 26142037
doi: 10.1016/j.giec.2015.02.008
Tarasconi A, Baiocchi GL, Pattonieri V, et al. Transcatheter arterial embolization versus surgery for refractory non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis. World J Emerg Surg 2019; 14:3.
pubmed: 30733822
pmcid: 6359767
doi: 10.1186/s13017-019-0223-8
Wang YR, Richter JE, Dempsey DT: Trends and outcomes of hospitalizations for peptic ulcer disease in the United States, 1993 to 2006. Ann Surg 251:51–58, 2010.
pubmed: 20009753
doi: 10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181b975b8
Kim JS, Kim BW, Kim DH, Park CH, Lee H, Joo MK et al. Guidelines for Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Gut Liver. 2020 Sep 15;14(5):560-570.
pubmed: 32921639
pmcid: 7492499
doi: 10.5009/gnl20154
Kim JW, Kim HS, Byun JW, et al. Predictive factors of recurrent bleeding in Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Korean J Gastroenterol 2005;46;447-454.
pubmed: 16371719
Barakat M, Hamed A, Shady A, Homsi M, Eskaros S. Endoscopic band ligation versus endoscopic hemoclip placement for Dieulafoy’s lesion: a meta-analysis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 30:995-996.
pubmed: 30048368
doi: 10.1097/MEG.0000000000001179
T.M. Parab, M.J. DeRogatis, A.M. Boaz, S.A. Grasso, P.S. Issack, D.A. Duarte, et al. Gastrointestinal stromal tumours: a comprehensive review J Gastrointest Oncol 2018; 10 (1): 144-154
Gunjan D, Sharma V, Rana SS, Bhasin DK. Small bowel bleeding: a comprehensive review. Gastroenterol Rep (Oxf). 2014; 2(4):262-75.
pubmed: 24874805
pmcid: 4219139
doi: 10.1093/gastro/gou025
Gralnek IM, Neeman Z, Strate LL. Acute Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding. N Engl J Med. 2017; 376(11):1054-1063.
pubmed: 28296600
doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp1603455
Hreinsson JP, Gumundsson S, Kalaitzakis E, Björnsson ES. Lower gastrointestinal bleeding: incidence, etiology, and outcomes in a population-based setting. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013; 25:37-43.
pubmed: 23013623
doi: 10.1097/MEG.0b013e32835948e3
Oakland K, Guy R, Uberoi R, Hogg R, Mortensen N, Murphy MF et al. Lower GI Bleeding Collaborative. Acute lower GI bleeding in the UK: patient characteristics, interventions and outcomes in the first nationwide audit. Gut. 2018; 67(4):654–662.
Aoki T, Hirata Y, Yamada A, Koike K. Initial management for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. World J Gastroenterol. 2019; 25(1):69-84.
pubmed: 30643359
pmcid: 6328962
doi: 10.3748/wjg.v25.i1.69
Strate LL, Gralnek IM. ACG Clinical Guideline: Management of Patients with Acute Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016; 111(4):459-74.
pubmed: 26925883
pmcid: 5099081
doi: 10.1038/ajg.2016.41
Sittichanbuncha Y, Senasu S, Thongkrau T, Keeratikasikorn C, Sawanyawisuth K. How to differentiate sites of gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with hematochezia by using clinical factors? Gastroenterol Res Pract. 2013; 2013:265076.
Triantafyllou K, Gkolfakis P, Gralnek IM, Oakland K, Manes G, Radaelli F et al. Diagnosis and management of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guideline. Endoscopy. 2021;53(8):850-868.
pubmed: 34062566
doi: 10.1055/a-1496-8969
Strate LL. Lower GI bleeding: epidemiology and diagnosis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2005;34(4):643-64.
pubmed: 16303575
doi: 10.1016/j.gtc.2005.08.007
Richards RJ, Donica MB, Grayer D. Can the blood urea nitrogen/creatinine ratio distinguish upper from lower gastrointestinal bleeding? J Clin Gastroenterol 1990; 12 (5):500-4.
pubmed: 2229992
doi: 10.1097/00004836-199010000-00004
Aoki T, Nagata N, Shimbo T, Niikura R, Sakurai T, Moriyasu S et al. Development and Validation of a Risk Scoring System for Severe Acute Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016; 14(11):1562-1570.
pubmed: 27311620
doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2016.05.042
Oakland K, Jairath V, Uberoi R, Guy R, Ayaru L, Mortensen N et al. Derivation and validation of a novel risk score for safe discharge after acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: a modelling study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017; 2(9):635-643.
pubmed: 28651935
doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(17)30150-4
Strate LL, Saltzman JR, Ookubo R, Mutinga ML, Syngal S. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for severe acute lower intestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005; 100(8):1821-7.
pubmed: 16086720
doi: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.41755.x
Laursen SB, Oakland K, Laine L, Bieber V, Marmo R, Redondo-Cerezo E et al. ABC score: a new risk score that accurately predicts mortality in acute upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding: an international multicentre study. Gut. 2021; 70(4):707-716.
pubmed: 32723845
doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2019-320002
Sengupta N, Tapper EB. Derivation and Internal Validation of a Clinical Prediction Tool for 30-Day Mortality in Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding. Am J Med. 2017; 130(5): 601.e1-601.e8.
doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.12.009
Oakland K, Chadwick G, East JE, Guy R, Humphries A, Jairath V et al. Diagnosis and management of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: guidelines from the British Society of Gastroenterology. Gut. 2019; 68(5):776-789.
pubmed: 30792244
doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2018-317807
Nakasone Y, Ikeda O, Yamashita Y, Kudoh K, Shigematsu Y, Harada K. Shock index correlates with extravasation on angiographs of gastrointestinal hemorrhage: a logistics regression analysis. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2007; 30(5):861-5.
pubmed: 17647057
doi: 10.1007/s00270-007-9131-5
Oakland K, Kothiwale S, Forehand T, Jackson E, Bucknall C, Sey MSL et al. External Validation of the Oakland Score to Assess Safe Hospital Discharge Among Adult Patients with Acute Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding in the US. JAMA Netw Open. 2020; 3(7): e209630.
Trentino KM, Farmer SL, Leahy MF, Sanfilippo FM, Isbister JP, Mayberry R et al. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses comparing mortality in restrictive and liberal haemoglobin thresholds for red cell transfusion: an overview of systematic reviews. BMC Med. 2020;18(1):154.
pubmed: 32576194
pmcid: 7313211
doi: 10.1186/s12916-020-01614-w
Simon GI, Craswell A, Thom O, Fung YL. Outcomes of restrictive versus liberal transfusion strategies in older adults from nine randomised controlled trials: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Haematol. 2017;4(10): e465-e474.
pubmed: 28919087
doi: 10.1016/S2352-3026(17)30141-2
Valgimigli M, Bueno H, Byrne RA, Collet JP, Costa F, Jeppsson A et al. ESC Scientific Document Group; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG); ESC National Cardiac Societies. 2017 ESC focused update on dual antiplatelet therapy in coronary artery disease developed in collaboration with EACTS: The Task Force for dual antiplatelet therapy in coronary artery disease of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and of the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J. 2018 14;39(3):213–260.
Pollack CV Jr, Reilly PA, van Ryn J, Eikelboom JW, Glund S, Bernstein RA et al. Idarucizumab for Dabigatran Reversal - Full Cohort Analysis. N Engl J Med. 2017; 377(5):431-441.
pubmed: 28693366
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1707278
Connolly SJ, Crowther M, Eikelboom JW, Gibson CM, Curnutte JT, Lawrence JH et al. ANNEXA-4 Investigators. Full Study Report of Andexanet Alfa for Bleeding Associated with Factor Xa Inhibitors. N Engl J Med. 2019 Apr 4;380(14):1326–1335.
Sengupta N, Feuerstein JD, Patwardhan VR, Tapper EB, Ketwaroo GA, Thaker AM et al. The risks of thromboembolism vs. recurrent gastrointestinal bleeding after interruption of systemic anticoagulation in hospitalized in patients with gastrointestinal bleeding: a prospective study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015; 110(2):328–35.
Lhewa DY, Strate LL. Pros and cons of colonoscopy in management of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. World J Gastroenterol. 2012 Mar 21;18(11):1185-90.
pubmed: 22468081
pmcid: 3309907
doi: 10.3748/wjg.v18.i11.1185
Navaneethan U, Njei B, Venkatesh PG, Sanaka MR. Timing of colonoscopy and outcomes in patients with lower GI bleeding: a nationwide population-based study. Gastrointest Endosc. 2014 Feb;79(2):297-306.e12.
pubmed: 24060518
doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2013.08.001
Kherad O, Restellini S, Almadi M, Strate LL, Ménard C, Martel M et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: limited benefits from early colonoscopy in acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2020; 52(5):774-788.
pubmed: 32697886
doi: 10.1111/apt.15925
Anvari S, Lee Y, Yu J, Doumouras AG, Khan KJ, Hong D. Urgent Versus Standard Colonoscopy for Management of Acute Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2020; 54(6):493-502.
pubmed: 32091447
doi: 10.1097/MCG.0000000000001329
Ishii N, Hirata N, Omata F, Itoh T, Uemura M, Matsuda M et al. Location in the ascending colon is a predictor of refractory colonic diverticular hemorrhage after endoscopic clipping. Gastrointest Endosc. 2012; 76(6):1175-81.
pubmed: 23021162
doi: 10.1016/j.gie.2012.07.040
DeMicco MP, Clayton LB, Pilot J, Epstein MS; NOCT Study Group. Novel 1 L polyethylene glycol-based bowel preparation NER1006 for overall and right-sided colon cleansing: a randomized controlled phase 3 trial versus trisulfate. Gastrointest Endosc. 2018; 87(3):677–687.
Bisschops R, Manning J, Clayton LB, Ng Kwet Shing R, Álvarez-González M; MORA Study Group. Colon cleansing efficacy and safety with 1 L NER1006 versus 2 L polyethylene glycol + ascorbate: a randomized phase 3 trial. Endoscopy. 2019;51(1):60–72.
Wong RC. Immediate unprepared hydroflush colonoscopy for management of severe lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterol Hepatol (NY). 2013;9(1):31-4.
Kennedy DW, Laing CJ, Tseng LH, Rosenblum DI, Tamarkin SW. Detection of active gastrointestinal hemorrhage with CT angiography: a 4(1/2)-year retrospective review. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2010; 21(6):848-55.
pubmed: 20400333
doi: 10.1016/j.jvir.2010.01.039
Ren JZ, Zhang MF, Rong AM, Fang XJ, Zhang K, Huang GH et al. Lower gastrointestinal bleeding: role of 64-row computed tomographic angiography in diagnosis and therapeutic planning. World J Gastroenterol. 2015; 21(13):4030-7.
pubmed: 25852291
pmcid: 4385553
doi: 10.3748/wjg.v21.i13.4030
ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Pasha SF, Shergill A, Acosta RD, Chandrasekhara V, Chathadi KV, Early D et al. The role of endoscopy in the patient with lower GI bleeding. Gastrointest Endosc. 2014; 79(6):875–85.
Pham T, Tran BA, Ooi K, Mykytowycz M, McLaughlin S, Croxford M et al. Super-Selective Mesenteric Embolization Provides Effective Control of Lower GI Bleeding. Radiol Res Pract. 2017; 2017:1074804.
pubmed: 28210507
pmcid: 5292126
Funaki B, Kostelic JK, Lorenz J, Ha TV, Yip DL, Rosenblum JD et al. Superselective microcoil embolization of colonic hemorrhage. Am J Roentgenol. 2001; 177(4):829-36.
doi: 10.2214/ajr.177.4.1770829
Ramaswamy RS, Choi HW, Mouser HC, Narsinh KH, McCammack KC, Treesit T et al. Role of interventional radiology in the management of acute gastrointestinal bleeding. World J Radiol. 2014; 6(4):82-92.
pubmed: 24778770
pmcid: 4000612
doi: 10.4329/wjr.v6.i4.82
Darcy M. Treatment of lower gastrointestinal bleeding: vasopressin infusion versus embolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2003; 14(5):535-43.
pubmed: 12761306
doi: 10.1097/01.RVI.0000064862.65229.8A
Raphaeli T, Menon R. Current treatment of lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Clin Colon Rectal Surg. 2012; 25(4):219-27.
pubmed: 24294124
pmcid: 3577609
doi: 10.1055/s-0032-1329393
Ohmiya N. Management of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: Comparison of guidelines between Japan and other countries. Dig Endosc. 2020; 32:204-218.
pubmed: 31596970
doi: 10.1111/den.13554
Rondonotti E, Spada C, Adler S, May A, Despott EJ, Koulaouzidis A, et al. Small-bowel capsule endoscopy and device-assisted enteroscopy for diagnosis and treatment of small-bowel disorders: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Technical Review. Endoscopy. 2018; 50:423-446.
pubmed: 29539652
doi: 10.1055/a-0576-0566
Arieira C, Monteiro S, Dias de Castro F, Boal Carvalho P, Rosa B, Moreira MJ, et al. Capsule endoscopy: Is the software TOP 100 a reliable tool in suspected small bowel bleeding? Dig Liver Dis. 2019; 51:1661–1664.
Mans L, Arvanitakis M, Neuhaus H, Devière J. Motorized Spiral Enteroscopy for Occult Bleeding. Dig Dis. 2018; 36:325-327.
pubmed: 29698967
doi: 10.1159/000488479