Pathological sequelae of long-haul COVID.
Journal
Nature immunology
ISSN: 1529-2916
Titre abrégé: Nat Immunol
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 100941354
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
02 2022
02 2022
Historique:
received:
25
08
2021
accepted:
30
11
2021
pubmed:
3
2
2022
medline:
11
2
2022
entrez:
2
2
2022
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
The world continues to contend with successive waves of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), fueled by the emergence of viral variants. At the same time, persistent, prolonged and often debilitating sequelae are increasingly recognized in convalescent individuals, named 'post-COVID-19 syndrome' or 'long-haul COVID'. Clinical symptomatology includes fatigue, malaise, dyspnea, defects in memory and concentration and a variety of neuropsychiatric syndromes as the major manifestations, and several organ systems can be involved. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are poorly understood at present. This Review details organ-specific sequelae of post-COVID-19 syndromes and examines the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms available so far, elaborating on persistent inflammation, induced autoimmunity and putative viral reservoirs. Finally, we propose diagnostic strategies to better understand this heterogeneous disorder that continues to afflict millions of people worldwide.
Identifiants
pubmed: 35105985
doi: 10.1038/s41590-021-01104-y
pii: 10.1038/s41590-021-01104-y
pmc: PMC9127978
mid: NIHMS1804958
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
194-202Subventions
Organisme : NCI NIH HHS
ID : P30 CA196521
Pays : United States
Organisme : NIDDK NIH HHS
ID : R01 DK123749
Pays : United States
Organisme : NIAID NIH HHS
ID : U24 AI118644
Pays : United States
Organisme : NIDDK NIH HHS
ID : DK123749 0S1
Pays : United States
Informations de copyright
© 2022. Springer Nature America, Inc.
Références
Dong, E., Du, H. & Gardner, L. An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time. Lancet Infect. Dis. 20, 533–534 (2020).
pubmed: 32087114
pmcid: 7159018
doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30120-1
Nalbandian, A. et al. Post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. Nat. Med. 27, 601–615 (2021).
pubmed: 33753937
pmcid: 8893149
doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01283-z
Venkatesan, P. NICE guideline on long COVID. Lancet Respir. Med. 9, 129 (2021).
pubmed: 33453162
pmcid: 7832375
doi: 10.1016/S2213-2600(21)00031-X
Shah, W., Hillman, T., Playford, E. D. & Hishmeh, L. Managing the long term effects of covid-19: summary of NICE, SIGN, and RCGP rapid guideline. BMJ 372, n136 (2021).
pubmed: 33483331
doi: 10.1136/bmj.n136
Lam, M. H. et al. Mental morbidities and chronic fatigue in severe acute respiratory syndrome survivors: long-term follow-up. Arch. Intern. Med. 169, 2142–2147 (2009).
pubmed: 20008700
doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.384
Lee, S. H. et al. Depression as a mediator of chronic fatigue and post-traumatic stress symptoms in Middle East respiratory syndrome survivors. Psychiatry Invest. 16, 59–64 (2019).
doi: 10.30773/pi.2018.10.22.3
Rogers, J. P. et al. Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric presentations associated with severe coronavirus infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis with comparison to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Psychiatry 7, 611–627 (2020).
pubmed: 32437679
pmcid: 7234781
doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30203-0
Ahmed, H. et al. Long-term clinical outcomes in survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreaks after hospitalisation or ICU admission: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Rehabil. Med. 52, jrm00063 (2020).
pubmed: 32449782
Moldofsky, H. & Patcai, J. Chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, depression and disordered sleep in chronic post-SARS syndrome: a case-controlled study. BMC Neurol. 11, 37 (2011).
pubmed: 21435231
pmcid: 3071317
doi: 10.1186/1471-2377-11-37
Ngai, J. C. et al. The long-term impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome on pulmonary function, exercise capacity and health status. Respirology 15, 543–550 (2010).
pubmed: 20337995
pmcid: 7192220
doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2010.01720.x
Hui, D. S. et al. Impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) on pulmonary function, functional capacity and quality of life in a cohort of survivors. Thorax 60, 401–409 (2005).
pubmed: 15860716
pmcid: 1758905
doi: 10.1136/thx.2004.030205
Ong, K. C. et al. Pulmonary function and exercise capacity in survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Eur. Respir. J. 24, 436–442 (2004).
pubmed: 15358703
doi: 10.1183/09031936.04.00007104
Das, K. M. et al. Follow-up chest radiographic findings in patients with MERS-CoV after recovery. Indian J. Radio. Imaging 27, 342–349 (2017).
doi: 10.4103/ijri.IJRI_469_16
Al-Aly, Z., Xie, Y. & Bowe, B. High-dimensional characterization of post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. Nature 594, 259–264 (2021).
pubmed: 33887749
doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03553-9
Salamanna, F., Veronesi, F., Martini, L., Landini, M. P. & Fini, M. Post-COVID-19 syndrome: the persistent symptoms at the post-viral stage of the disease. A systematic review of the current data. Front. Med. 8, 653516 (2021).
doi: 10.3389/fmed.2021.653516
Blomberg, B. et al. Long COVID in a prospective cohort of home-isolated patients. Nat. Med. 27, 1607–1613 (2021).
pubmed: 34163090
pmcid: 8440190
doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01433-3
Carfi, A., Bernabei, R., Landi, F. G. & Against COVID-19 post-acute care study group. Persistent symptoms in patients after acute COVID-19. JAMA 324, 603–605 (2020).
pubmed: 32644129
pmcid: 7349096
doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.12603
Chopra, V., Flanders, S. A., O’Malley, M., Malani, A. N. & Prescott, H. C. Sixty-day outcomes among patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Ann. Intern. Med. 174, 576–578 (2021).
pubmed: 33175566
doi: 10.7326/M20-5661
Halpin, S. J. et al. Postdischarge symptoms and rehabilitation needs in survivors of COVID-19 infection: a cross-sectional evaluation. J. Med. Virol. 93, 1013–1022 (2021).
pubmed: 32729939
doi: 10.1002/jmv.26368
Garrigues, E. et al. Post-discharge persistent symptoms and health-related quality of life after hospitalization for COVID-19. J. Infect. 81, e4–e6 (2020).
pubmed: 32853602
pmcid: 7445491
doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.08.029
Han, X. et al. Six-month follow-up chest CT findings after severe COVID-19 pneumonia. Radiology 299, E177–E186 (2021).
pubmed: 33497317
doi: 10.1148/radiol.2021203153
Truffaut, L. et al. Post-discharge critical COVID-19 lung function related to severity of radiologic lung involvement at admission. Respir. Res. 22, 29 (2021).
pubmed: 33478527
pmcid: 7819622
doi: 10.1186/s12931-021-01625-y
Weerahandi, H. et al. Post-discharge health status and symptoms in patients with severe COVID-19. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 36, 738–745 (2021).
pubmed: 33443703
pmcid: 7808113
doi: 10.1007/s11606-020-06338-4
van Gassel, R. J. J. et al. High prevalence of pulmonary sequelae at 3 months after hospital discharge in mechanically ventilated survivors of COVID-19. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 203, 371–374 (2021).
pubmed: 33326353
pmcid: 7874313
doi: 10.1164/rccm.202010-3823LE
Chun, H. J. et al. Immunofibrotic drivers of impaired lung function in postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection. JCI Insight https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.148476 (2021).
Martin-Villares, C., Perez Molina-Ramirez, C., Bartolome-Benito, M., Bernal-Sprekelsen, M., & COVID ORL ESP Collaborative Group. Outcome of 1890 tracheostomies for critical COVID-19 patients: a national cohort study in Spain. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 278, 1605–1612 (2021).
pubmed: 32749607
doi: 10.1007/s00405-020-06220-3
Huang, C. et al. 6-month consequences of COVID-19 in patients discharged from hospital: a cohort study. Lancet 397, 220–232 (2021).
pubmed: 33428867
pmcid: 7833295
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32656-8
Zhao, Y.-m. et al. Follow-up study of the pulmonary function and related physiological characteristics of COVID-19 survivors three months after recovery. Eclinicalmedicine 25, 100463 (2020).
pubmed: 32838236
pmcid: 7361108
doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100463
Shah, A. S. et al. A prospective study of 12-week respiratory outcomes in COVID-19-related hospitalisations. Thorax 76, 402–404 (2021).
pubmed: 33273023
doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-216308
Shaw, B., Daskareh, M. & Gholamrezanezhad, A. The lingering manifestations of COVID-19 during and after convalescence: update on long-term pulmonary consequences of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Radiol. Med. 126, 40–46 (2021).
pubmed: 33006087
doi: 10.1007/s11547-020-01295-8
Arnold, D. T. et al. Patient outcomes after hospitalisation with COVID-19 and implications for follow-up: results from a prospective UK cohort. Thorax 76, 399–401 (2021).
pubmed: 33273026
doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-216086
Mendez, R. et al. Reduced diffusion capacity in COVID-19 survivors. Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc. 18, 1253–1255 (2021).
pubmed: 33472019
pmcid: 8328367
doi: 10.1513/AnnalsATS.202011-1452RL
Manolis, T. A., Apostolopoulos, E. J., Manolis, A. A., Melita, H. & Manolis, A. S. COVID-19 infection: a neuropsychiatric perspective. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 33, 266–279 (2021).
Ferini-Strambi, L. & Salsone, M. COVID-19 and neurological disorders: are neurodegenerative or neuroimmunological diseases more vulnerable? J. Neurol. 268, 409–419 (2021).
pubmed: 32696341
doi: 10.1007/s00415-020-10070-8
Heneka, M. T., Golenbock, D., Latz, E., Morgan, D. & Brown, R. Immediate and long-term consequences of COVID-19 infections for the development of neurological disease. Alzheimers Res. Ther. 12, 69 (2020).
pubmed: 32498691
pmcid: 7271826
doi: 10.1186/s13195-020-00640-3
Taquet, M., Luciano, S., Geddes, J. R. & Harrison, P. J. Bidirectional associations between COVID-19 and psychiatric disorder: retrospective cohort studies of 62 354 COVID-19 cases in the USA. Lancet Psychiatry 8, 130–140 (2021).
pubmed: 33181098
doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30462-4
Long, B., Brady, W. J., Koyfman, A. & Gottlieb, M. Cardiovascular complications in COVID-19. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 38, 1504–1507 (2020).
pubmed: 32317203
pmcid: 7165109
doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.04.048
Carvalho-Schneider, C. et al. Follow-up of adults with noncritical COVID-19 two months after symptom onset. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 27, 258–263 (2021).
pubmed: 33031948
doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.09.052
Dennis, A. et al. Multiorgan impairment in low-risk individuals with post-COVID-19 syndrome: a prospective, community-based study. BMJ Open 11, e048391 (2021).
pubmed: 33785495
doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-048391
Puntmann, V. O. et al. Outcomes of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in patients recently recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). JAMA Cardiol. 5, 1265–1273 (2020).
pubmed: 32730619
pmcid: 7385689
doi: 10.1001/jamacardio.2020.3557
Rajpal, S. et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance findings in competitive athletes recovering from COVID-19 infection. JAMA Cardiol. 6, 116–118 (2021).
pubmed: 32915194
Moody, W. E. et al. Persisting adverse ventricular remodeling in COVID-19 survivors: a longitudinal echocardiographic study. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 34, 562–566 (2021).
pubmed: 33539950
pmcid: 8008825
doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2021.01.020
Levi, M., Thachil, J., Iba, T. & Levy, J. H. Coagulation abnormalities and thrombosis in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Haematol. 7, e438–e440 (2020).
pubmed: 32407672
pmcid: 7213964
doi: 10.1016/S2352-3026(20)30145-9
Patell, R. et al. Postdischarge thrombosis and hemorrhage in patients with COVID-19. Blood 136, 1342–1346 (2020).
pubmed: 32766883
doi: 10.1182/blood.2020007938
Leentjens, J., van Haaps, T. F., Wessels, P. F., Schutgens, R. E. G. & Middeldorp, S. COVID-19-associated coagulopathy and antithrombotic agents—lessons after 1 year. Lancet Haematol. 8, e524–e533 (2021).
pubmed: 33930350
pmcid: 8078884
doi: 10.1016/S2352-3026(21)00105-8
Suarez-Farinas, M. et al. Intestinal inflammation modulates the expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and potentially overlaps with the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2-related disease. Gastroenterology 160, 287–301 e220 (2021).
pubmed: 32980345
doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.09.029
Livanos, A. E. et al. Intestinal host response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 outcomes in patients with gastrointestinal symptoms. Gastroenterology 160, 2435–2450.e2434 (2021).
pubmed: 33676971
doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2021.02.056
Mao, R. et al. Manifestations and prognosis of gastrointestinal and liver involvement in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5, 667–678 (2020).
pubmed: 32405603
pmcid: 7217643
doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30126-6
Weng, J. et al. Gastrointestinal sequelae 90 days after discharge for COVID-19. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6, 344–346 (2021).
pubmed: 33711290
pmcid: 7943402
doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(21)00076-5
Wu, Y. et al. Prolonged presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in faecal samples. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5, 434–435 (2020).
pubmed: 32199469
pmcid: 7158584
doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30083-2
Gaebler, C. et al. Evolution of antibody immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Nature 591, 639–644 (2021).
pubmed: 33461210
pmcid: 8221082
doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03207-w
Yang, J. K., Lin, S. S., Ji, X. J. & Guo, L. M. Binding of SARS coronavirus to its receptor damages islets and causes acute diabetes. Acta Diabetol. 47, 193–199 (2010).
pubmed: 19333547
doi: 10.1007/s00592-009-0109-4
Rubino, F. et al. New-onset diabetes in Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med 383, 789–790 (2020).
pubmed: 32530585
doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2018688
Montefusco, L. et al. Acute and long-term disruption of glycometabolic control after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat. Metab. 3, 774–785 (2021).
pubmed: 34035524
doi: 10.1038/s42255-021-00407-6
Brancatella, A. et al. Subacute thyroiditis after Sars-COV-2 infection. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 105, 2367–2370 (2020).
Tee, L. Y., Harjanto, S. & Rosario, B. H. COVID-19 complicated by Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Singapore Med. J. 62, 265 (2020).
Mateu-Salat, M., Urgell, E. & Chico, A. SARS-COV-2 as a trigger for autoimmune disease: report of two cases of Graves’ disease after COVID-19. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 43, 1527–1528 (2020).
pubmed: 32686042
doi: 10.1007/s40618-020-01366-7
Robbins-Juarez, S. Y. et al. Outcomes for patients with COVID-19 and acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Kidney Int. Rep. 5, 1149–1160 (2020).
pubmed: 32775814
pmcid: 7314696
doi: 10.1016/j.ekir.2020.06.013
Stevens, J. S. et al. High rate of renal recovery in survivors of COVID-19 associated acute renal failure requiring renal replacement therapy. PLoS ONE 15, e0244131 (2020).
pubmed: 33370368
pmcid: 7769434
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244131
Freeman, E. E. et al. The spectrum of COVID-19-associated dermatologic manifestations: an international registry of 716 patients from 31 countries. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 83, 1118–1129 (2020).
pubmed: 32622888
pmcid: 7331510
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2020.06.1016
Malkud, S. Telogen effluvium: a review. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 9, WE01–WE03 (2015).
pubmed: 26500992
pmcid: 4606321
Abrantes, T. F. et al. Time of onset and duration of post-COVID-19 acute telogen effluvium. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 85, 975–976 (2021).
Bergamaschi, L. et al. Longitudinal analysis reveals that delayed bystander CD8
pubmed: 34051148
pmcid: 8125900
doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.05.010
Hadjadj, J. et al. Impaired type I interferon activity and inflammatory responses in severe COVID-19 patients. Science 369, 718–724 (2020).
pubmed: 32661059
pmcid: 7402632
doi: 10.1126/science.abc6027
Vabret, N. et al. Immunology of COVID-19: current state of the science. Immunity 52, 910–941 (2020).
pubmed: 32505227
pmcid: 7200337
doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2020.05.002
Phetsouphanh, C. et al. Immunological dysfunction persists for 8 months following initial mild–moderate SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat. Immunol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-021-01113-x (2022).
Hoeffel, G. et al. C-Myb
pubmed: 25902481
pmcid: 4545768
doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2015.03.011
Bost, P. et al. Host-viral infection maps reveal signatures of severe COVID-19 patients. Cell 181, 1475–1488.e1412 (2020).
pubmed: 32479746
pmcid: 7205692
doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.05.006
Schneider, C. et al. Induction of the nuclear receptor PPAR-gamma by the cytokine GM-CSF is critical for the differentiation of fetal monocytes into alveolar macrophages. Nat. Immunol. 15, 1026–1037 (2014).
pubmed: 25263125
doi: 10.1038/ni.3005
Ziegler, C. G. K. et al. SARS-CoV-2 receptor ACE2 Is an interferon-stimulated gene in human airway epithelial cells and is detected in specific cell subsets across tissues. Cell 181, 1016–1035.e1019 (2020).
pubmed: 32413319
pmcid: 7252096
doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.035
Hou, Y. J. et al. SARS-CoV-2 reverse genetics reveals a variable infection gradient in the respiratory tract. Cell 182, 429–446.e414 (2020).
pubmed: 32526206
pmcid: 7250779
doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.05.042
Melms, J. C. et al. A molecular single-cell lung atlas of lethal COVID-19. Nature 595, 114–119 (2021).
pubmed: 33915568
pmcid: 8814825
doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03569-1
Tsukui, T. et al. Collagen-producing lung cell atlas identifies multiple subsets with distinct localization and relevance to fibrosis. Nat. Commun. 11, 1920 (2020).
pubmed: 32317643
pmcid: 7174390
doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-15647-5
Coker, R. K. et al. Localisation of transforming growth factor beta1 and beta3 mRNA transcripts in normal and fibrotic human lung. Thorax 56, 549–556 (2001).
pubmed: 11413354
pmcid: 1746092
Connors, J. M. & Levy, J. H. COVID-19 and its implications for thrombosis and anticoagulation. Blood 135, 2033–2040 (2020).
pubmed: 32339221
doi: 10.1182/blood.2020006000
Ackermann, M. et al. Pulmonary vascular endothelialitis, thrombosis, and angiogenesis in Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med 383, 120–128 (2020).
pubmed: 32437596
pmcid: 7412750
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2015432
Hottz, E. D. et al. Platelet activation and platelet-monocyte aggregate formation trigger tissue factor expression in patients with severe COVID-19. Blood 136, 1330–1341 (2020).
pubmed: 32678428
doi: 10.1182/blood.2020007252
Ramlall, V. et al. Immune complement and coagulation dysfunction in adverse outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat. Med. 26, 1609–1615 (2020).
pubmed: 32747830
pmcid: 7809634
doi: 10.1038/s41591-020-1021-2
Libby, P. & Luscher, T. COVID-19 is, in the end, an endothelial disease. Eur. Heart J. 41, 3038–3044 (2020).
pubmed: 32882706
doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa623
South, K. et al. Preceding infection and risk of stroke: an old concept revived by the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Stroke 15, 722–732 (2020).
pubmed: 32618498
pmcid: 7534199
doi: 10.1177/1747493020943815
Jhaveri, K. D. et al. Thrombotic microangiopathy in a patient with COVID-19. Kidney Int. 98, 509–512 (2020).
pubmed: 32525010
pmcid: 7276225
doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2020.05.025
Gemayel, C., Pelliccia, A. & Thompson, P. D. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 38, 1773–1781 (2001).
pubmed: 11738273
doi: 10.1016/S0735-1097(01)01654-0
Lazzerini, P. E., Laghi-Pasini, F., Boutjdir, M. & Capecchi, P. L. Cardioimmunology of arrhythmias: the role of autoimmune and inflammatory cardiac channelopathies. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 19, 63–64 (2019).
pubmed: 30552387
doi: 10.1038/s41577-018-0098-z
Muccioli, L. et al. COVID-19-associated encephalopathy and cytokine-mediated neuroinflammation. Ann. Neurol. 88, 860–861 (2020).
pubmed: 32715524
doi: 10.1002/ana.25855
Reichard, R. R. et al. Neuropathology of COVID-19: a spectrum of vascular and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM)-like pathology. Acta Neuropathol. 140, 1–6 (2020).
pubmed: 32449057
pmcid: 7245994
doi: 10.1007/s00401-020-02166-2
Peleg, Y. et al. Acute kidney injury due to collapsing glomerulopathy following COVID-19 infection. Kidney Int. Rep. 5, 940–945 (2020).
pubmed: 32346659
pmcid: 7186120
doi: 10.1016/j.ekir.2020.04.017
Gentile, S., Strollo, F., Mambro, A. & Ceriello, A. COVID-19, ketoacidosis and new-onset diabetes: are there possible cause and effect relationships among them? Diabetes Obes. Metab. 22, 2507–2508 (2020).
pubmed: 32790021
doi: 10.1111/dom.14170
Salvio, G. et al. Bone metabolism in SARS-CoV-2 disease: possible osteoimmunology and gender implications. Clin. Rev. Bone Miner. Metab. 1, 1–7 (2020).
Wright, S. D., Tobias, P. S., Ulevitch, R. J. & Ramos, R. A. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binding protein opsonizes LPS-bearing particles for recognition by a novel receptor on macrophages. J. Exp. Med. 170, 1231–1241 (1989).
pubmed: 2477488
doi: 10.1084/jem.170.4.1231
Ravetch, J. V. & Kinet, J. P. Fc receptors. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 9, 457–492 (1991).
pubmed: 1910686
doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.09.040191.002325
Chakraborty, S. et al. Proinflammatory IgG Fc structures in patients with severe COVID-19. Nat. Immunol. 22, 67–73 (2021).
pubmed: 33169014
doi: 10.1038/s41590-020-00828-7
Barzilai, O., Ram, M. & Shoenfeld, Y. Viral infection can induce the production of autoantibodies. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 19, 636–643 (2007).
pubmed: 17917546
doi: 10.1097/BOR.0b013e3282f0ad25
Fujinami, R. S., von Herrath, M. G., Christen, U. & Whitton, J. L. Molecular mimicry, bystander activation, or viral persistence: infections and autoimmune disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 19, 80–94 (2006).
pubmed: 16418524
pmcid: 1360274
doi: 10.1128/CMR.19.1.80-94.2006
Ohashi, P. S. et al. Ablation of ‘tolerance’ and induction of diabetes by virus infection in viral antigen transgenic mice. Cell 65, 305–317 (1991).
pubmed: 1901764
doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90164-T
Tuohy, V. K. et al. The epitope spreading cascade during progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis. Immunol. Rev. 164, 93–100 (1998).
pubmed: 9795767
doi: 10.1111/j.1600-065X.1998.tb01211.x
Zulfiqar, A. A., Lorenzo-Villalba, N., Hassler, P. & Andres, E. Immune thrombocytopenic purpura in a patient with Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med. 382, e43 (2020).
pubmed: 32294340
doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2010472
Toscano, G. et al. Guillain–Barre syndrome associated with SARS-CoV-2. N. Engl. J. Med 382, 2574–2576 (2020).
pubmed: 32302082
doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2009191
Gutierrez-Ortiz, C. et al. Miller Fisher syndrome and polyneuritis cranialis in COVID-19. Neurology 95, e601–e605 (2020).
pubmed: 32303650
doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000009619
Bowles, L. et al. Lupus anticoagulant and abnormal coagulation tests in patients with Covid-19. N. Engl. J. Med. 383, 288–290 (2020).
pubmed: 32369280
doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2013656
Rowley, A. H. Understanding SARS-CoV-2-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 20, 453–454 (2020).
pubmed: 32546853
doi: 10.1038/s41577-020-0367-5
Bastard, P. et al. Autoantibodies against type I IFNs in patients with life-threatening COVID-19. Science 370, 423 (2020).
Chang, S. E. et al. New-onset IgG autoantibodies in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Nat. Commun. 12, 5417 (2021).
Wang, E. Y. et al. Diverse functional autoantibodies in patients with COVID-19. Nature 595, 283–288 (2021).
pubmed: 34010947
doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03631-y
LongCovidSOS. The impact of COVID vaccination on symptoms of long Covid. An international survey of 900 people with lived experience. https://www.pslhub.org/learn/coronavirus-covid19/data-and-statistics/the-impact-of-covid-vaccination-on-symptoms-of-long-covid-an-international-survey-of-900-people-with-lived-experience-may-2021-r4636/ (2021).
Wolfel, R. et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature 581, 465–469 (2020).
pubmed: 32235945
doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2196-x
Sun, J. et al. Prolonged persistence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in body fluids. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 26, 1834–1838 (2020).
pubmed: 32383638
pmcid: 7392422
doi: 10.3201/eid2608.201097
Randall, R. E. & Griffin, D. E. Within host RNA virus persistence: mechanisms and consequences. Curr. Opin. Virol. 23, 35–42 (2017).
pubmed: 28319790
pmcid: 5474179
doi: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.03.001
Baigent, C., Burbury, K. & Wheeler, D. Premature cardiovascular disease in chronic renal failure. Lancet 356, 147–152 (2000).
pubmed: 10963260
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02456-9
Ouchi, N., Parker, J. L., Lugus, J. J. & Walsh, K. Adipokines in inflammation and metabolic disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 11, 85–97 (2011).
pubmed: 21252989
pmcid: 3518031
doi: 10.1038/nri2921