Links Between Swallowing and Consciousness: A Narrative Review.
Coma
Consciousness
Disorders of consciousness
Dysphagia
Severe brain injury
Swallowing
Journal
Dysphagia
ISSN: 1432-0460
Titre abrégé: Dysphagia
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 8610856
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
02 2023
02 2023
Historique:
received:
30
03
2021
accepted:
06
12
2021
pubmed:
1
7
2022
medline:
27
1
2023
entrez:
30
6
2022
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
This literature review explores a wide range of themes addressing the links between swallowing and consciousness. Signs of consciousness are historically based on the principle of differentiating reflexive from volitional behaviors. We show that the sequencing of the components of swallowing falls on a continuum of voluntary to reflex behaviors and we describe several types of volitional and non-volitional swallowing tasks. The frequency, speed of initiation of the swallowing reflex, efficacy of the pharyngeal phase of swallowing and coordination between respiration and swallowing are influenced by the level of consciousness during non-pathological modifications of consciousness such as sleep and general anesthesia. In patients with severe brain injury, the level of consciousness is associated with several components related to swallowing, such as the possibility of extubation, risk of pneumonia, type of feeding or components directly related to swallowing such as oral or pharyngeal abnormalities. Based on our theoretical and empirical analysis, the efficacy of the oral phase and the ability to receive exclusive oral feeding seem to be the most robust signs of consciousness related to swallowing in patients with disorders of consciousness. Components of the pharyngeal phase (in terms of abilities of saliva management) and evoked cough may be influenced by consciousness, but further studies are necessary to determine if they constitute signs of consciousness as such or only cortically mediated behaviors. This review also highlights the critical lack of tools and techniques to assess and treat dysphagia in patients with disorders of consciousness.
Identifiants
pubmed: 35773497
doi: 10.1007/s00455-022-10452-2
pii: 10.1007/s00455-022-10452-2
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
42-64Informations de copyright
© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
Références
Arnold M, Liesirova K, Broeg-Morvay A, et al. Dysphagia in acute atroke: incidence, burden and impact on clinical outcome. PLoS ONE. 2016;11: e0148424. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148424 .
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148424
Dunn K, Rumbach A. Incidence and risk factors for dysphagia following non-traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage: a retrospective cohort study. Dysphagia. 2019;34:229–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-018-9934-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-018-9934-3
Guan X-L, Wang H, Huang H-S, et al. Prevalence of dysphagia in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurol Sci. 2015;36:671–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-015-2067-7 .
doi: 10.1007/s10072-015-2067-7
Kalf JG, de Swart BJM, Bloem BR, et al. Prevalence of oropharyngeal dysphagia in Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2012;18:311–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2011.11.006 .
doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2011.11.006
Michel A, Vérin E, Gbaguidi X, et al. Oropharyngeal dysphagia in community-dwelling older patients with dementia: Prevalence and relationship with geriatric parameters. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2018;19:770–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2018.04.011 .
doi: 10.1016/j.jamda.2018.04.011
Formisano R, Voogt RD, Buzzi MG, et al. Time interval of oral feeding recovery as a prognostic factor in severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2004;18:103–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/0269905031000149470 .
doi: 10.1080/0269905031000149470
Mackay LE, Morgan AS, Bernstein BA. Swallowing disorders in severe brain injury: Risk factors affecting return to oral intake. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80:365–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90271-X .
doi: 10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90271-X
Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974;2.
Asikainen I, Kaste M, Sarna S. Predicting late outcome for patients with traumatic brain injury referred to a rehabilitation programme: a study of 508 Finnish patients 5 years or more after injury. Brain Inj. 1998;12:95–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/026990598122737 .
doi: 10.1080/026990598122737
Laureys S. The neural correlate of (un)awareness: lessons from the vegetative state. Trends Cogn Sci. 2005;9:556–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.10.010 .
doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2005.10.010
Damasio A, Meyer K. Consciousness: AN overview of the phenomenon and of its possible neural basis. In: The Neurology of Consciousness. Elsevier; 2009. p. 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374168-4.00001-0
Laureys S, Celesia GG, Lavrijsen J, et al. Unresponsive wakefulness syndrome: a new name for the vegetative state or apallic syndrome. BMC Med. 2010;1:68. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-68 .
doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-8-68
Giacino JT, Ashwal S, Childs N, et al. The minimally conscious state: definition and diagnostic criteria. Neurology. 2002;58:349–53.
Bruno M-A, Vanhaudenhuyse A, Thibaut A, et al. From unresponsive wakefulness to minimally conscious PLUS and functional locked-in syndromes: recent advances in our understanding of disorders of consciousness. J Neurol. 2011;258:1373–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-011-6114-x .
doi: 10.1007/s00415-011-6114-x
Thibaut A, Bodien YG, Laureys S, et al. Minimally conscious state “plus”: diagnostic criteria and relation to functional recovery. J Neurol. 2020;267:1245–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-019-09628-y .
doi: 10.1007/s00415-019-09628-y
Gosseries O, Bruno M-A, Vanhaudenhuyse A, et al. Consciousness in the Locked-in Syndrome. In: The Neurology of Consciousness. Elsevier; 2009. p. 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374168-4.00015-0
Luaute J, Maucort-Boulch D, Tell L, et al. Long-term outcomes of chronic minimally conscious and vegetative states. Neurology. 2010;75:246–52. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181e8e8df .
doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181e8e8df
Noé E, Olaya J, Navarro MD, et al. Behavioral recovery in disorders of consciousness: a prospective study with the spanish version of the coma recovery scale-revised. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2012;93:428-433.e12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2011.08.048 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2011.08.048
Thibaut A, Bruno M-A, Ledoux D, et al. tDCS in patients with disorders of consciousness: sham-controlled randomized double-blind study. Neurology. 2014;82:1112–8. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000260 .
doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000260
Boly M, Faymonville M-E, Schnakers C, et al. Perception of pain in the minimally conscious state with PET activation: an observational study. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7:1013–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70219-9 .
doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70219-9
Demertzi A, Racine E, Bruno M-A, et al. Pain perception in disorders of consciousness: neuroscience, clinical care, and ethics in dialogue. Neuroethics. 2013;6:37–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-011-9149-x .
doi: 10.1007/s12152-011-9149-x
Demertzi A, Schnakers C, Ledoux D, et al. Different beliefs about pain perception in the vegetative and minimally conscious states: a European survey of medical and paramedical professionals. Prog Brain Res 2009; 329–38.
Bernat J. Ethical issues in the management of patients with impaired consciousness. In: Handbook of clinical neurology. Paris: Elsevier; 2008. p. 369–82.
Demertzi A, Ledoux D, Bruno M-A, et al. Attitudes towards end-of-life issues in disorders of consciousness: a European survey. J Neurol. 2011;258:1058–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-010-5882-z .
doi: 10.1007/s00415-010-5882-z
Giacino JT, Katz DI, Schiff ND, et al. Practice guideline update recommendations summary: disorders of consciousness. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018;99:1699–709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2018.07.001 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2018.07.001
Giacino JT, Katz DI, Schiff ND, et al. Practice guideline update recommendations summary: disorders of consciousness. Neurology. 2018;91:450–60. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000005926 .
doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000005926
Kondziella D, Bender A, Diserens K, et al. European academy of neurology guideline on the diagnosis of coma and other disorders of consciousness. Eur J Neurol. 2020;27:741–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.14151 .
doi: 10.1111/ene.14151
Giacino JT, Kalmar K, Whyte J. The JFK coma recovery scale-revised: measurement characteristics and diagnostic utility. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:2020–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2004.02.033 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2004.02.033
Seel RT, Sherer M, Whyte J, et al. Assessment scales for disorders of consciousness: evidence-based recommendations for clinical practice and research. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;91:1795–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2010.07.218 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2010.07.218
Chatelle C, Hauger SL, Martial C, et al. Assessment of nociception and pain in participants in an unresponsive or minimally conscious state after acquired brain injury: the relation between the coma recovery scale-revised and the nociception coma scale-revised. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018;99:1755–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2018.03.009 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2018.03.009
van Ommen HJ, Thibaut A, Vanhaudenhuyse A, et al. Resistance to eye opening in patients with disorders of consciousness. J Neurol. 2018;265:1376–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-018-8849-0 .
doi: 10.1007/s00415-018-8849-0
Arzi A, Rozenkrantz L, Gorodisky L, et al. Olfactory sniffing signals consciousness in unresponsive patients with brain injuries. Nature. 2020;581:428–33. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2245-5 .
doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2245-5
Carrière M, Cassol H, Aubinet C, et al. Auditory localization should be considered as a sign of minimally conscious state based on multimodal findings. Brain Commun 2020; 2. https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcaa195 .
Hermann B, Salah AB, Perlbarg V, et al. Habituation of auditory startle reflex is a new sign of minimally conscious state. Brain. 2020;143:2154–72. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awaa159 .
doi: 10.1093/brain/awaa159
Lancioni GE, Bosco A, Olivetti Belardinelli M, et al. Assessing learning as a possible sign of consciousness in post-coma persons with minimal responsiveness. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00025
Aubinet C, Murphy L, Bahri MA, et al. Brain, Behavior, and Cognitive Interplay in Disorders of Consciousness: A Multiple Case Study. Front Neurol 2018;9. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2018.00665
Thibaut A, Chatelle C, Wannez S, et al. Spasticity in disorders of consciousness: a behavioral study. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2015;51:389–97.
Foxx-Orenstein A, Kolakowsky-Hayner S, Marwitz JH, et al. Incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of fecal incontinence after acute brain injury: findings from the traumatic brain injury model systems national database. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84:231–7. https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2003.50095 .
doi: 10.1053/apmr.2003.50095
Brady SL, Darragh M, Escobar NG, et al. Persons with disorders of consciousness: are oral feedings safe/effective? Brain Inj. 2006;20:1329–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050601111435 .
doi: 10.1080/02699050601111435
Mélotte E, Maudoux A, Delhalle S, et al. Is oral feeding compatible with an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome? J Neurol. 2018;265:954–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-018-8794-y .
doi: 10.1007/s00415-018-8794-y
Mélotte E, Maudoux A, Delhalle S, et al. Swallowing in patients with disorders of consciousness: a cohort study. Ann Phys Rehabil Med. 2020;64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rehab.2020.04.008 .
Fischer DB, Truog RD. What is a reflex?: A guide for understanding disorders of consciousness. Neurology. 2015;85:543–8. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001748 .
doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000001748
Prochazka A, Clarac F, Loeb GE, et al. What do reflex and voluntary mean? Modern views on an ancient debate. Exp Brain Res. 2000;130:417–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002219900250 .
doi: 10.1007/s002219900250
D’Ostilio K, Garraux G. Brain mechanisms underlying automatic and unconscious control of motor action. Front Hum Neurosci 2012; 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00265
Sumner P, Husain M. At the edge of consciousness: automatic motor activation and voluntary control. Neuroscientist. 2008;14:474–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858408314435 .
doi: 10.1177/1073858408314435
Miller AJ. Oral and pharyngeal reflexes in the mammalian nervous system: their diverse range in complexity and the pivotal role of the tongue. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2002;13:409–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/154411130201300505 .
doi: 10.1177/154411130201300505
Ertekin C, Aydogdu I. Neurophysiology of swallowing. Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;114:2226–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00237-2 .
doi: 10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00237-2
Palmer JB, Hiiemae KM, Matsuo K, et al. Volitional control of food transport and bolus formation during feeding. Physiol Behav. 2007;91:66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.01.018 .
doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.01.018
Furuya J, Hara A, Nomura T, et al. Volitional chewing with a conscious effort alters and facilitates swallowing during feeding sequence. J Oral Rehabil. 2014;41:191–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/joor.12140 .
doi: 10.1111/joor.12140
Ashiga H, Takei E, Magara J, et al. Effect of attention on chewing and swallowing behaviors in healthy humans. Sci Rep. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-42422-4 .
doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-42422-4
Dubner R, Sessle BJ, Storey AT. The neural basis of oral and facial function. New York: Plenum; 1978.
Sessle BJ, Adachi K, Avivi-Arber L, et al. Neuroplasticity of face primary motor cortex control of orofacial movements. Arch Oral Biol. 2007;52:334–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archoralbio.2006.11.002 .
doi: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2006.11.002
Sessle BJ, Yao D, Nishiura H, et al. Properties and plasticity of the primate somatosensory and motor cortex related to orofacial sensorimotor function. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2005;32:109–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1681.2005.04137.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2005.04137.x
Yao D, Yamamura K, Narita N, et al. Neuronal activity patterns in primate primary motor cortex related to trained or semiautomatic jaw and tongue movements. J Neurophysiol. 2002;87:2531–41. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.2002.87.5.2531 .
doi: 10.1152/jn.2002.87.5.2531
Martin RE, Murray GM, Kemppainen P, et al. Functional properties of neurons in the primate tongue primary motor cortex during swallowing. J Neurophysiol. 1997;78:1516–30. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1997.78.3.1516 .
doi: 10.1152/jn.1997.78.3.1516
Miller AJ. Deglutition. Physiol Rev. 1982;62:129–84.
Maestro I, Carreño M, Donaire A, et al. Oroalimentary automatisms induced by electrical stimulation of the fronto-opercular cortex in a patient without automotor seizures. Epilepsy Behav. 2008;13:410–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.03.013 .
doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.03.013
Humbert IA, German RZ. New directions for understanding neural control in swallowing: the potential and promise of motor learning. Dysphagia. 2013;28:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-012-9432-y .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-012-9432-y
Moore JD, Kleinfeld D, Wang F. How the brainstem controls orofacial behaviors comprised of rhythmic actions. Trends Neurosci. 2014;37:370–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2014.05.001 .
doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2014.05.001
Nishino T. The swallowing reflex and its significance as an airway defensive reflex. Front Physiol. 2013. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2012.00489 .
doi: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00489
Palmer JB, Rudin NJ, Lara G, et al. Coordination of mastication and swallowing. Dysphagia. 1992;7:187–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02493469 .
doi: 10.1007/BF02493469
Dodderi T, Philip NE, Mutum K. Effects of a dual swallow-attention task on swallow and cognitive performance measures. Percept Mot Skills. 2018;125:109–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512517742283 .
doi: 10.1177/0031512517742283
Dodderi T, Larisa V. Influence of attention resource allocation on sequential swallow in healthy young adults. Int J Brain Cogn Sci. 2016;5:1–6.
Troche MS, Okun MS, Rosenbek JC, et al. Attentional resource allocation and swallowing safety in Parkinson’s disease: a dual task study. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2014;20:439–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2013.12.011 .
doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2013.12.011
Theurer JA, Czachorowski KA, Martin LP, et al. Effects of oropharyngeal air-pulse stimulation on swallowing in healthy older adults. Dysphagia. 2009;24:302–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-009-9207-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-009-9207-2
Takatsuji H, Zakir HMD, Mostafeezur RMD, et al. Induction of the swallowing reflex by electrical stimulation of the posterior oropharyngeal region in awake humans. Dysphagia. 2012;27:473–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-012-9393-1 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-012-9393-1
Tsukano H, Taniguchi H, Hori K, et al. Individual-dependent effects of pharyngeal electrical stimulation on swallowing in healthy humans. Physiol Behav. 2012;106:218–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.02.007 .
doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.02.007
Shaker R, editor. Principles of deglutition: a multidisciplinary text for swallowing and its disorders. New York: Springer; 2013.
Wheeler-Hegland KM, Rosenbek JC, Sapienza CM. Submental sEMG and hyoid movement during mendelsohn maneuver, effortful swallow, and expiratory muscle strength training. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2008;51:1072. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0016) .
doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0016)
Broussard DL, Altschuler SM. Brainstem viscerotopic organization of afferents and efferents involved in the control of swallowing. Am J Med. 2000;108:79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00343-5 .
doi: 10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00343-5
Musgrove RE, Chiu W-H, Goldberg JA. Vagal motoneurons in Parkinson’s disease. In: Genetics, neurology, behavior, and diet in Parkinson’s Disease. Elsevier; 2020. p. 327–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815950-7.00021-7
Richards W, Sugarbaker D. Neuronal control of esophageal function. Chest Surg Clin N Am. 1995;5:157–71.
Shaker R, Easterling C, Kern M, et al. Rehabilitation of swallowing by exercise in tube-fed patients with pharyngeal dysphagia secondary to abnormal UES opening. Gastroenterology. 2002;122:1314–21. https://doi.org/10.1053/gast.2002.32999 .
doi: 10.1053/gast.2002.32999
Winiker K, Gozdzikowska K, Guiu Hernandez E, et al. Potential for behavioural pressure modulation at the upper oesophageal sphincter in healthy swallowing. Dysphagia Published Online First. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-021-10324-1
Meyer G, Austin R, Brady C, et al. Muscle anatomy of the human esophagus. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1986;8:131–4. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004836-198604000-00005 .
doi: 10.1097/00004836-198604000-00005
Ertekin C, Kiylioglu N, Tarlaci S, et al. Voluntary and reflex influences on the initiation of swallowing reflex in man. Dysphagia. 2001;16:40–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004550000041 .
doi: 10.1007/s004550000041
Kern MK, Jaradeh S, Arndorfer RC, et al. Cerebral cortical representation of reflexive and volitional swallowing in humans. Am J Physiol-Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2001;280:354–60. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.2001.280.3.G354 .
doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.2001.280.3.G354
Ertekin C. Voluntary versus spontaneous swallowing in man. Dysphagia. 2011;26:183–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-010-9319-8 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-010-9319-8
Sanders RD, Tononi G, Laureys S, et al. Unresponsiveness ≠ Unconsciousness. Anesthesiology. 2012;116:946–59. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0b013e318249d0a7 .
doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e318249d0a7
Guiu Hernandez E, Gozdzikowska K, Jones RD, et al. Pharyngeal swallowing during wake and sleep. Dysphagia Published Online First. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-019-09989-6
Kelly BN, Huckabee M-L, Jones RD, et al. The influence of volition on breathing-swallowing coordination in healthy adults. Behav Neurosci. 2007;121:1174–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.121.6.1174 .
doi: 10.1037/0735-7044.121.6.1174
Lichter I, Muir R. The pattern of swallowing during sleep. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1975; 38.
Okuno K, Nohara K, Takai E, et al. Sleep stage coordination of respiration and swallowing: a preliminary study. Dysphagia. 2016;31:579–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-016-9719-5 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-016-9719-5
Pohl D, Arevalo F, Singh E, et al. Swallowing activity assessed by ambulatory impedance-pH monitoring predicts awake and asleep periods at night. Dig Dis Sci. 2013;58:1049–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-012-2474-z .
doi: 10.1007/s10620-012-2474-z
Sato K, Umeno H, Chitose S-I, et al. Deglutition and respiratory patterns during sleep in younger adults. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 2011;131:190–6. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016489.2010.522595 .
doi: 10.3109/00016489.2010.522595
Sato K, Chitose S, Sato K, et al. Deglutition and respiratory patterns during sleep in the aged. Acta Otolaryngol. 2016;136:1278–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00016489.2016.1203991 .
doi: 10.1080/00016489.2016.1203991
Sato K, Nakashima T. Human adult deglutition during sleep. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2006;115:334–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/000348940611500503 .
doi: 10.1177/000348940611500503
Pinto A, Yanai M, Nakagawa T, et al. Swallowing reflex in the night. Lancet Lond Engl. 1994;344:820–1.
Uludag IF, Tiftikcioglu BI, Ertekin C. Spontaneous swallowing during all-night sleep in patients with parkinson disease in comparison with healthy control subjects. Sleep. 2016;39:847–54. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.5640 .
doi: 10.5665/sleep.5640
Bonhomme V, Staquet C, Montupil J, et al. General anesthesia: a probe to explore consciousness. Front Syst Neurosci. 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2019.00036 .
doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2019.00036
D’Angelo OM, Diaz-Gil D, Nunn D, et al. Anesthesia and increased hypercarbic drive impair the coordination between breathing and swallowing. Anesthesiology. 2014;121:1175–83. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000000462 .
doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000000462
D’Honneur G, Rimaniol JM, el Sayed A, et al. Midazolam/propofol but not propofol alone reversibly depress the swallowing reflex. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1994;38:244–7.
Gemma M, Pasin L, Oriani A, et al. Swallowing impairment during propofol target-controlled infusion. Anesth Analg. 2016;122:48–54. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000000796 .
doi: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000000796
Rimaniol JM, D’Honneur G, Duvaldestin P. Recovery of the swallowing reflex after propofol anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1994;79:856–9. https://doi.org/10.1213/00000539-199411000-00007 .
doi: 10.1213/00000539-199411000-00007
Taylor PA, Towey RM, Rappoport AS. Further work on the depression of laryngeal reflexes during ketamine anaesthesia using a standard challenge technique. Br J Anaesth. 1972;44:1163.
Nishino T, Takisawa K, Yokokawa N, et al. Depression of the swallowing reflex during sedation and/or relative analgesia produced by inhalation of 50% nitrous oxide in oxygen. Anesthesiology. 1987;67:995–8.
Cedborg AIH, Sundman E, Boden K, et al. Effects of morphine and midazolam on pharyngeal function, airway protection, and coordination of breathing and swallowing in healthy adults. Anesthesiology. 2015;122:1253–67.
Nishino T, Hiraga K. Coordination of swallowing and respiration in unconscious subjects. J Appl Physiol. 1991;70:988–93.
Royal College of Physicians. The vegetative state: guidance on diagnosis and management. Clin Med. 2003;3:249–54. https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmedicine.3-3-249 .
doi: 10.7861/clinmedicine.3-3-249
Brady SL, Pape TLB, Darragh M, et al. Feasibility of instrumental swallowing assessments in patients with prolonged disordered consciousness while undergoing inpatient rehabilitation. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2009;24:384–91.
Bremare A, Rapin A, Veber B, et al. Swallowing disorders in severe brain injury in the arousal phase. Dysphagia. 2016;31:511–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-016-9707-9 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-016-9707-9
Godet T, Chabanne R, Marin J, et al. Extubation failure in brain-injured patients: risk factors and development of a prediction score in a preliminary prospective cohort study. Anesthesiology. 2017;126:104–14. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000001379 .
doi: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000001379
Kjaersgaard A, Nielsen LH, Sjölund BH. Factors affecting return to oral intake in inpatient rehabilitation after acquired brain injury. Brain Inj. 2015;29:1094–104. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699052.2015.1022883 .
doi: 10.3109/02699052.2015.1022883
Millwood J, MacKenzie S, Munday R, et al. A report from an investigation of abnormal oral reflexes, lip trauma and awareness levels in patients with profound brain damage. J Disabil Oral Health. 2005;6:72–8.
Wang J, Wang J, Hu X, et al. The initiation of swallowing can indicate the prognosis of disorders of consciousness: a self-controlled study. Front Neurol. 2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01184 .
doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01184
Winstein CJ. Frequency, progression, and outcome in adults following head injury. Phys Ther. 1983;63:8.
Mackay LE, Morgan AS, Bernstein BA. Factors affecting oral feeding with severe traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1999;14:435–47.
O’Neil-Pirozzi TM, Jack Momose K, Mello J, et al. Feasibility of swallowing interventions for tracheostomized individuals with severely disordered consciousness following traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2003;17:389–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/0269905031000070251 .
doi: 10.1080/0269905031000070251
Terré R, Mearin F. Prospective evaluation of oro-pharyngeal dysphagia after severe traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2007;21:1411–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699050701785096 .
doi: 10.1080/02699050701785096
Hansen TS, Engberg AW, Larsen K. Functional oral intake and time to reach unrestricted dieting for patients with traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89:1556–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2007.11.063 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2007.11.063
Hansen TS, Larsen K, Engberg AW. The association of functional oral intake and pneumonia in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2008;89:2114–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2008.04.013 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2008.04.013
Terré R, Mearin F. Evolution of tracheal aspiration in severe traumatic brain injury-related oropharyngeal dysphagia: 1-year longitudinal follow-up study. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2009;21:361–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2982.2008.01208.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2008.01208.x
Mandaville A, Ray A, Robertson H, et al. A retrospective review of swallow dysfunction in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. Dysphagia. 2014;29:310–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-013-9509-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-013-9509-2
Hagen C, Malkmus D, Durham P. Rehabilitation of the head injured adult: Comprehensive physical management. Levels of cognitive functioning. 1979.
Gill-Thwaites H, Munday R. The Sensory Modality Assessment and Rehabilitation Technique (SMART): a comprehensive and integrated assessment and treatment protocol for the vegetative state and minimally responsive patient. Neuropsychol Rehabil. 1999;9:305–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/096020199389392 .
doi: 10.1080/096020199389392
Shiel A, Horn S, Wilson B, et al. The Wessex Head Injury Matrix (WHIM) main scale: a preliminary report on a scale to assess and monitor patient recovery after severe head injury. Clin Rehabil. 2000;14:408–16.
Wijdicks E, Bamlet W, Maramattom B, et al. Validation of a new coma scale: the FOUR score. Ann Neurol. 2005;58:585–93.
Eccles R. Central mechanisms IV: conscious control of cough and the placebo effect. In: Hand Exp Pharmacol. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2009. p. 241–62.
Mazzone SB, Cole LJ, Ando A, et al. Investigation of the Neural Control of Cough and Cough Suppression in Humans Using Functional Brain Imaging. J Neurosci. 2011;31:2948–58.
Hegland KW, Bolser DC, Davenport PW. Volitional control of reflex cough. J Appl Physiol. 2012;113:39–46. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01299.2011 .
doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01299.2011
Martino R, Flowers HL, Shaw SM, et al. A systematic review of current clinical and instrumental swallowing assessment methods. Curr Phys Med Rehabil Rep. 2013;1:267–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40141-013-0033-y .
doi: 10.1007/s40141-013-0033-y
Pape T, Lundgren S, Guernon A, et al. Disorders of Consciousness Scale (DOCS): administration manual. Washington(DC): U.S.: 2011.
Pape TL-B, Heinemann AW, Kelly JP, et al. A measure of neurobehavioral functioning after coma. Part I: theory, reliability, and validity of the disorders of consciousness scale. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2005;42:1. https://doi.org/10.1682/JRRD.2004.03.0032 .
doi: 10.1682/JRRD.2004.03.0032
Gollega A, Meghji C, Renton S, et al. Multidisciplinary assessment measure for individuals with disorders of consciousness. Brain Inj. 2015;29:1460–6. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699052.2015.1071426 .
doi: 10.3109/02699052.2015.1071426
Bicego A, Lejoly K, Maudoux A, et al. Déglutition et états de conscience altérée. Rev Neurol. 2014;170:630–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurol.2014.04.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.neurol.2014.04.004
Mélotte E, Belorgeot M, Herr R, et al. The development and validation of the SWADOC: a study protocol for a multicenter prospective cohort study. Front Neurol. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.662634 .
doi: 10.3389/fneur.2021.662634
Mortensen J, Jensen D, Kjaersgaard A. A validation study of the facial-oral tract therapy swallowing assessment of saliva. Clin Rehabil. 2016;30:410–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215515584381 .
doi: 10.1177/0269215515584381
Carnaby-Mann G, Lenius K. The bedside examination in dysphagia. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2008;19:747–68.
Swan K, Cordier R, Brown T, et al. Psychometric properties of visuoperceptual measures of videofluoroscopic and fibre-endoscopic evaluations of swallowing: a systematic review. Dysphagia. 2019;34:2–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00455-018-9918-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s00455-018-9918-3
De Tanti A, Zampolini M, Pregno S, et al. Recommendations for clinical practice and research in severe brain injury in intensive rehabilitation: the Italian Consensus Conference. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2015;51:89–103.
Jakobsen D, Poulsen I, Schultheiss C, et al. The effect of intensified nonverbal facilitation of swallowing on dysphagia after severe acquired brain injury: a randomised controlled pilot study. NeuroRehabilitation. 2019;45:525–36. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-192901 .
doi: 10.3233/NRE-192901
Brady SL, Pape TL-B. Swallowing evaluation and treatment for individuals with disordered consciousness. ASHA Lead. 2011;16:12–4.
Roberts H, Greenwood N. Speech and language therapy best practice for patients in prolonged disorders of consciousness: a modified Delphi study. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2019;54:841–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12489 .
doi: 10.1111/1460-6984.12489
Hansen TS, Jakobsen D. A decision-algorithm defining the rehabilitation approach: ‘Facial oral tract therapy’®. Disabil Rehabil. 2010;32:1447–60. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638280903556482 .
doi: 10.3109/09638280903556482
Seidl RO, Nusser-Müller-Busch R, Hollweg W, et al. Pilot study of a neurophysiological dysphagia therapy for neurological patients. Clin Rehabil. 2007;21:686–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215507076393 .
doi: 10.1177/0269215507076393
Konradi J, Lerch A, Cataldo M, et al. Direct effects of Facio-Oral Tract Therapy on swallowing frequency of non-tracheotomised patients with acute neurogenic dysphagia. SAGE Open Med. 2015;3:205031211557895. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312115578958 .
doi: 10.1177/2050312115578958
Nusser-Müller-Busch R, Gampp Lehmann K, editors. Facial-Oral Tract Therapy (F.O.T.T.): For eating, swallowing, nonverbal communication and speech. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51637-6
Giacino J, Kalmar K. The vegetative and minimally conscious states: a comparison of clinical features and functional outcome. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1997;12:36–51.
Whyte J, Nakase-Richardson R. Disorders of consciousness: outcomes, comorbidities, and care needs. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2013;94:1851–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2013.07.003 .
doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2013.07.003
Willems M, Sattin D, Vingerhoets A, et al. Longitudinal changes in functioning and disability in patients with disorders of consciousness: the importance of environmental factors. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12:3707–30. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120403707 .
doi: 10.3390/ijerph120403707