Interlaminar versus transforaminal epidural steroid injections: a review of efficacy and safety.
Efficacy
Epidural
Injections
Safety
Spine
Journal
Skeletal radiology
ISSN: 1432-2161
Titre abrégé: Skeletal Radiol
Pays: Germany
ID NLM: 7701953
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Oct 2023
Oct 2023
Historique:
received:
20
03
2022
accepted:
11
07
2022
revised:
09
07
2022
medline:
25
8
2023
pubmed:
21
7
2022
entrez:
20
7
2022
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Spine intervention is an important treatment option for the management of spinal pain, and the numbers of the most representative epidural steroid injection (ESI) procedures performed are expected to increase significantly in the future along with increased life expectancy and the increasing prevalence of spinal disorders. Therefore, it is important to understand the efficacy of ESIs according to each spinal disorder they are administered to treat, and one must be familiar with the possible complications. In fact, although numerous ESI-related articles have been published, there is still considerable controversy regarding the efficacy of ESI procedures. Furthermore, due to the rarity of serious complications, most instances have been recorded in the form of case reports. In this article, we aimed to review the indications of cervical and lumbar ESIs and to compare interlaminar ESI (ILESI) and transforaminal ESI (TFESI) techniques in terms of analgesic efficacy, possible complications, and safety profiles. This article includes opinions based on the authors' experience with ESI indications and efficacy, and presents practical tips for coping with specific situations related to each complication. By combining the dedicated anatomical understanding of radiologists with image-guided interventions, ESI is expected to stand out in the rapidly expanding field of spine intervention.
Identifiants
pubmed: 35859019
doi: 10.1007/s00256-022-04124-3
pii: 10.1007/s00256-022-04124-3
doi:
Substances chimiques
Steroids
0
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
1825-1840Subventions
Organisme : National Research Foundation of Korea
ID : NRF-2020R1F1A1060936
Informations de copyright
© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to International Skeletal Society (ISS).
Références
Murray CJ, Atkinson C, Bhalla K, et al. The state of US health, 1990–2010: burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors. JAMA. 2013;310:591–608. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.13805 .
doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.13805
pubmed: 23842577
Dieleman JL, Cao J, Chapin A, et al. US health care spending by payer and health condition, 1996–2016. JAMA. 2020;323:863–84. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.0734 .
doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.0734
pubmed: 32125402
pmcid: 7054840
Lee CH, Chung CK, Kim CH, Kwon JW. Health care burden of spinal diseases in the Republic of Korea: analysis of a nationwide database from 2012 through 2016. Neurospine. 2018;15:66–76. https://doi.org/10.14245/ns.1836038.019 .
doi: 10.14245/ns.1836038.019
pubmed: 29656624
pmcid: 5944630
Manchikanti L, Knezevic NN, Navani A, et al. Epidural interventions in the management of chronic spinal pain: American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) comprehensive evidence-based guidelines. Pain Phys. 2021;24:S27–208. https://doi.org/10.36076/ppj.2021.24.401 .
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2021.24.401
Koes BW, Scholten RJPM, Mens JMA, Bouter LM. Efficacy of epidural steroid injections for low-back pain and sciatica: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Pain. 1995;63:279–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(95)00124-7 .
doi: 10.1016/0304-3959(95)00124-7
pubmed: 8719528
Chou R, Hashimoto R, Friedly J, et al. Pain management injection therapies for low back pain. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2015. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285206 .
Friedly JL, Comstock BA, Turner JA, et al. A randomized trial of epidural glucocorticoid injections for spinal stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:11–21. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1313265 .
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1313265
pubmed: 24988555
Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Falco FJ, Hirsch JA. An updated assessment of utilization of interventional pain management techniques in the Medicare population: 2000–2013. Pain Phys. 2015;18:E115–27.
doi: 10.36076/ppj/2015.18.E115
Carette S, Leclaire R, Marcoux S, et al. Epidural corticosteroid injections for sciatica due to herniated nucleus pulposus. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1634–40. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199706053362303 .
doi: 10.1056/NEJM199706053362303
pubmed: 9171065
Kamble PC, Sharma A, Singh V, Natraj B, Devani D, Khapane V. Outcome of single level disc prolapse treated with transforaminal steroid versus epidural steroid versus caudal steroids. Eur Spine J. 2016;25:217–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-015-3996-9 .
doi: 10.1007/s00586-015-3996-9
pubmed: 25962813
Jeong HS, Lee JW, Kim SH, Myung JS, Kim JH, Kang HS. Effectiveness of transforaminal epidural steroid injection by using a preganglionic approach: a prospective randomized controlled study. Radiology. 2007;245:584–90. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2452062007 .
doi: 10.1148/radiol.2452062007
pubmed: 17940309
Park CH, Lee SH. Effect of relative injectate pressures on the efficacy of lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injection in patients with lumbar foraminal stenosis. Pain Pract. 2014;14:223–7. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12063 .
doi: 10.1111/papr.12063
pubmed: 23586803
Lee JW, Shin HI, Park SY, Lee GY, Kang HS. Therapeutic trial of fluoroscopic interlaminar epidural steroid injection for axial low back pain: effectiveness and outcome predictors. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2010;31:1817–23. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A2180 .
doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A2180
pubmed: 20616178
pmcid: 7964022
Park P, Garton HJ, Gala VC, Hoff JT, McGillicuddy JE. Adjacent segment disease after lumbar or lumbosacral fusion: review of the literature. Spine. 2004;29:1938–44. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.brs.0000137069.88904.03 .
doi: 10.1097/01.brs.0000137069.88904.03
pubmed: 15534420
Kwon JW, Lee JW, Kim SH, et al. Cervical interlaminar epidural steroid injection for neck pain and cervical radiculopathy: effect and prognostic factors. Skelet Rad. 2007;36:431–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-006-0258-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s00256-006-0258-2
Choi E, Nahm FS, Lee PB. Comparison of contrast flow and clinical effectiveness between a modified paramedian interlaminar approach and transforaminal approach in cervical epidural steroid injection. Br J Anaesth. 2015;115:768–74. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aev342 .
doi: 10.1093/bja/aev342
pubmed: 26475805
Lee JW, Hwang SY, Lee GY, Lee E, Kang HS. Fluoroscopic cervical paramidline interlaminar epidural steroid injections for cervical radiculopathy: effectiveness and outcome predictors. Skelet Rad. 2014;43:933–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-014-1866-x .
doi: 10.1007/s00256-014-1866-x
Lee JW, Park KW, Chung SK, et al. Cervical transforaminal epidural steroid injection for the management of cervical radiculopathy: a comparative study of particulate versus non-particulate steroids. Skelet Rad. 2009;38:1077–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-009-0735-5 .
doi: 10.1007/s00256-009-0735-5
Manchikanti L, Malla Y, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V. is a Nursing CDM, is a Statistician VP. Fluoroscopic epidural injections in cervical spinal stenosis: preliminary results of a randomized, double-blind, active control trial. Pain Phys. 2012;15:E59–70.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2012/15/E59
Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Wargo BW, Malla Y. Management of chronic pain of cervical disc herniation and radiculitis with fluoroscopic cervical interlaminar epidural injections. Int J Med Sci. 2012;9:424–34. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijms.4444 .
doi: 10.7150/ijms.4444
pubmed: 22859902
pmcid: 3410361
Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Wargo BW, Malla Y. Cervical epidural injections in chronic discogenic neck pain without disc herniation or radiculitis: preliminary results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Pain Phys. 2010;13:E265–78.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2010/13/E265
Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Malla Y. Fluoroscopic cervical epidural injections in chronic axial or disc-related neck pain without disc herniation, facet joint pain, or radiculitis. J Pain Res. 2012;5:227–36. https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S32692 .
doi: 10.2147/JPR.S32692
pubmed: 22826642
pmcid: 3401988
McCormick ZL, Nelson A, Bhave M, et al. A prospective randomized comparative trial of targeted steroid injection via epidural catheter versus standard C7–T1 interlaminar approach for the treatment of unilateral cervical radicular pain. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2017;42:82–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/AAP.0000000000000521 .
doi: 10.1097/AAP.0000000000000521
pubmed: 27922950
Beyaz SG, Eman A. Fluoroscopy guided cervical interlaminar steroid injections in patients with cervical pain syndromes: a retrospective study. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil. 2013;26:85–91. https://doi.org/10.3233/bmr-2012-00354 .
doi: 10.3233/bmr-2012-00354
pubmed: 23539764
Joswig H, Neff A, Ruppert C, Hildebrandt G, Stienen MN. Repeat epidural steroid injections for radicular pain due to lumbar or cervical disc herniation: what happens after ‘salvage treatment’? Bone Joint J. 2018;100–B:1364–71. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.100B10.BJJ-2018-0461.R1 .
Conger A, Cushman DM, Speckman RA, Burnham T, Teramoto M, McCormick ZL. The effectiveness of fluoroscopically guided cervical transforaminal epidural steroid injection for the treatment of radicular pain; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain Med. 2020;21:41–54. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnz127 .
doi: 10.1093/pm/pnz127
pubmed: 31181148
Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Vist GE, et al. GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ. 2008;336:924–6. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39489.470347.AD .
doi: 10.1136/bmj.39489.470347.AD
pubmed: 18436948
pmcid: 2335261
Lee JH, Lee SH. Comparison of clinical effectiveness of cervical transforaminal steroid injection according to different radiological guidances (C-arm fluoroscopy vs. computed tomography fluoroscopy). Spine J. 2011;11:416–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2011.04.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.spinee.2011.04.004
pubmed: 21558036
Kim MS, Lee DG, Chang MC. Outcome of transforaminal epidural steroid injection according to severity of cervical foraminal stenosis. World Neurosurg. 2018;110:e398–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2017.11.014 .
doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2017.11.014
pubmed: 29138074
Kesikburun S, Aras B, Kelle B, Yavuz F, Yaşar E, Taşkaynatan MA. The effectiveness of cervical transforaminal epidural steroid injection for the treatment of neck pain due to cervical disc herniation: long-term results. Pain Manag. 2018;8:321–6. https://doi.org/10.2217/pmt-2018-0002 .
doi: 10.2217/pmt-2018-0002
pubmed: 30278822
Sim JH, Park H, Kim Y, et al. Comparative effectiveness of parasagittal interlaminar and transforaminal cervical epidural steroid injection in patients with cervical radicular pain: a randomized clinical trial. Pain Phys. 2021;24:117–25.
Lee JW, Kim SH, Lee IS, et al. Therapeutic effect and outcome predictors of sciatica treated using transforaminal epidural steroid injection. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2006;187:1427–31. https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.05.1727 .
doi: 10.2214/AJR.05.1727
pubmed: 17114531
Kim NR, Lee JW, Chung S-K, et al. Therapeutic effect of epidural steroid injection in patients suspected of having an internal disc disruption: a prospective case study. J Korean Radiol Soc. 2007;57:281–6. https://doi.org/10.3348/jkrs.2007.57.3.281 .
doi: 10.3348/jkrs.2007.57.3.281
Lee JW, Choi SW, Park SH, Lee GY, Kang HS. MR-based outcome predictors of lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injection for lumbar radiculopathy caused by herniated intervertebral disc. Eur Radiol. 2013;23:205–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-012-2566-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s00330-012-2566-3
pubmed: 22797955
Lee JW, Kim SH, Choi JY, et al. Transforaminal epidural steroid injection for lumbosacral radiculopathy: preganglionic versus conventional approach. Korean J Radiol. 2006;7:139–44. https://doi.org/10.3348/kjr.2006.7.2.139 .
doi: 10.3348/kjr.2006.7.2.139
pubmed: 16799275
pmcid: 2667587
Kim Y, Lee E, Lee JW, Kang Y, Ahn JM, Kang HS. Clinical and imaging characteristics of patients with extreme low back pain or sciatica referred for spinal injection. Neuroradiology. 2019;61:881–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-019-02222-z .
doi: 10.1007/s00234-019-02222-z
pubmed: 31101947
Manchikanti L, Singh V, Cash KA, Pampati V, Falco FJ. A randomized, double-blind, active-control trial of the effectiveness of lumbar interlaminar epidural injections in disc herniation. Pain Phys. 2014;17:E61–74.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2014/17/E61
Manchikanti L, Cash KA, R.T, McManus CD, Damron KS, Pampati V, Falco FJ. A randomized, double-blind controlled trial of lumbar interlaminar epidural injections in central spinal stenosis: 2-year follow-up. Pain Phys. 2015;18:79–92.
Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Benyamin R. Fluoroscopic lumbar interlaminar epidural injections in managing chronic lumbar axial or discogenic pain. J Pain Res. 2012;5:301–11. https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S32699 .
doi: 10.2147/JPR.S32699
pubmed: 23055773
pmcid: 3442746
Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Falco FJ. Transforaminal epidural injections in chronic lumbar disc herniation: a randomized, double-blind, active-control trial. Pain Phys. 2014;17:E489–501.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2014/17/E489
Ghai B, Kumar K, Bansal D, Dhatt SS, Kanukula R, Batra YK. Effectiveness of parasagittal interlaminar epidural local anesthetic with or without steroid in chronic lumbosacral pain: A randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Pain Phys. 2015;18:237–48.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2015/18/237
Kennedy DJ, Plastaras C, Casey E, et al. Comparative effectiveness of lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injections with particulate versus nonparticulate corticosteroids for lumbar radicular pain due to intervertebral disc herniation: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Pain Med. 2014;15:548–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12325 .
doi: 10.1111/pme.12325
pubmed: 24393129
Wei P, Xu Y, Yao Q, Wang L. Randomized trial of 3-drug combination for lumbar nerve root epidural injections with a TNF-α inhibitor in treatment of lumbar stenosis. Br J Neurosurg. 2020;34:168–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/02688697.2020.1713990 .
doi: 10.1080/02688697.2020.1713990
pubmed: 31955619
Tafazal S, Ng L, Chaudhary N, Sell P. Corticosteroids in peri-radicular infiltration for radicular pain: a randomised double blind controlled trial. One year results and subgroup analysis. Eur Spine J. 2009;18:1220–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-009-1000-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s00586-009-1000-2
pubmed: 19387704
pmcid: 2899508
Chang-Chien GC, Knezevic NN, McCormick Z, Chu SK, Trescot AM, Candido KD. Transforaminal versus interlaminar approaches to epidural steroid injections: a systematic review of comparative studies for lumbosacral radicular pain. Pain Phys. 2014;17:E509–24.
Ghai B, Bansal D, Kay JP, Vadaje KS, Wig J. Transforaminal versus parasagittal interlaminar epidural steroid injection in low back pain with radicular pain: a randomized, double-blind, active-control trial. Pain Phys. 2014;17:277–90.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2014/17/277
Lee JH, Shin KH, Park SJ, et al. Comparison of clinical efficacy between transforaminal and interlaminar epidural injections in lumbosacral disc herniation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain Phys. 2018;21:433–48.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2018.5.433
Manchikanti L, Knezevic E, Knezevic NN, et al. Epidural injections for lumbar radiculopathy or sciatica: a comparative systematic review and meta-analysis of cochrane review. Pain Phys. 2021;24:E539–54.
Lee JW, Lee E, Lee GY, Kang Y, Ahn JM, Kang HS. Epidural steroid injection-related events requiring hospitalisation or emergency room visits among 52,935 procedures performed at a single centre. Eur Radiol. 2018;28:418–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-017-4977-7 .
doi: 10.1007/s00330-017-4977-7
pubmed: 28726118
Eworuke E, Crisafi L, Liao J, et al. Risk of serious spinal adverse events associated with epidural corticosteroid injections in the Medicare population. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2021;46:203–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/rapm-2020-101778 .
doi: 10.1136/rapm-2020-101778
pubmed: 33277405
Suresh S, Berman J, Connell DA. Cerebellar and brainstem infarction as a complication of CT-guided transforaminal cervical nerve root block. Skelet Rad. 2007;36:449–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-006-0215-0 .
doi: 10.1007/s00256-006-0215-0
Nahm FS, Lee CJ, Lee SH, et al. Risk of intravascular injection in transforaminal epidural injections. Anaesthesia. 2010;65:917–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2044.2010.06447.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2010.06447.x
pubmed: 20645947
Shim E, Lee JW, Lee E, Ahn JM, Kang Y, Kang HS. Fluoroscopically guided epidural injections of the cervical and lumbar spine. Radiographics. 2017;37:537–61. https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.2017160043 .
doi: 10.1148/rg.2017160043
pubmed: 27935769
Murthy NS, Maus TP, Behrns CL. Intraforaminal location of the great anterior radiculomedullary artery (artery of Adamkiewicz): a retrospective review. Pain Med. 2010;11:1756–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2010.00948.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2010.00948.x
pubmed: 21134118
Dietrich TJ, Sutter R, Froehlich JM, Pfirrmann CW. Particulate versus non-particulate steroids for lumbar transforaminal or interlaminar epidural steroid injections: an update. Skelet Rad. 2015;44:149–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00256-014-2048-6 .
doi: 10.1007/s00256-014-2048-6
Lee IS, Kim SH, Lee JW, et al. Comparison of the temporary diagnostic relief of transforaminal epidural steroid injection approaches: conventional versus posterolateral technique. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2007;28:204–8.
pubmed: 17296980
pmcid: 7977402
Shah RV. Paraplegia following thoracic and lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injections: how relevant are particulate steroids?. Pain Pract. 2014. Wiley Online Library;14:297–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12110
Gharibo CG, Fakhry M, Diwan S, Kaye AD. Conus medullaris infarction after a right L4 transforaminal epidural steroid injection using dexamethasone. Pain Phys. 2016;19:E1211–4.
Manchikanti L, Falco FJ, Benyamin RM, Gharibo CG, Candido KD, Hirsch JA. Epidural steroid injections safety recommendations by the Multi-Society Pain Workgroup (MPW): more regulations without evidence or clarification. Pain Phys. 2014;17:E575–88.
doi: 10.36076/ppj.2014/17/E575
Link SC, El-Khoury GY, Guilford WB. Percutaneous epidural and nerve root block and percutaneous lumbar sympatholysis. Radiol Clin North Am. 1998;36:509–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-8389(05)70040-3 .
doi: 10.1016/s0033-8389(05)70040-3
pubmed: 9597069
Amorim JA, Gomes de Barros MV, Valença MM. Post-dural (post-lumbar) puncture headache: risk factors and clinical features. Cephalalgia. 2012;32:916–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0333102412453951 .
doi: 10.1177/0333102412453951
pubmed: 22843225
Rodriguez D, Branstetter BF IV, Agarwal V, et al. JOURNAL CLUB: incidence of complications following fluoroscopically guided lumbar punctures and myelograms. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2016;206:20–5. https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.15.14664 .
doi: 10.2214/AJR.15.14664
pubmed: 26700333
Harrington BE, Schmitt AM. Meningeal (postdural) puncture headache, unintentional dural puncture, and the epidural blood patch: a national survey of United States practice. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:430–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/AAP.0b013e3181b493e9 .
doi: 10.1097/AAP.0b013e3181b493e9
pubmed: 19749586
Park JE, Lee E, Lee JW, Kang Y, Ahn JM, Kang HS. The efficacy of a fluoroscopy guided epidural autologous blood patch in the treatment of a post-dural puncture headache. J Korean Soc Radiol. 2018;78:242–8. https://doi.org/10.3348/jksr.2018.78.4.242 .
doi: 10.3348/jksr.2018.78.4.242
Reina MA, Collier CB, Prats-Galino A, Puigdellívol-Sánchez A, Machés F, De Andrés JA. Unintentional subdural placement of epidural catheters during attempted epidural anesthesia: an anatomic study of spinal subdural compartment. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2011;36:537–41. https://doi.org/10.1097/AAP.0b013e31822e0e8c .
doi: 10.1097/AAP.0b013e31822e0e8c
pubmed: 21989150
Hoftman NN, Ferrante FM. Diagnosis of unintentional subdural anesthesia/analgesia: analyzing radiographically proven cases to define the clinical entity and to develop a diagnostic algorithm. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34:12–6. https://doi.org/10.1097/AAP.0b013e31819339cf .
doi: 10.1097/AAP.0b013e31819339cf
pubmed: 19258982
Benny B, Azari P, Briones D. Complications of cervical transforaminal epidural steroid injections. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;89:601–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/PHM.0b013e3181e2d07c .
doi: 10.1097/PHM.0b013e3181e2d07c
pubmed: 20567139
Bigeleisen PE. Nerve puncture and apparent intraneural injection during ultrasound-guided axillary block does not invariably result in neurologic injury. J Am Soc Anesthesiologists. 2006;105:779–83. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-200610000-00024 .
doi: 10.1097/00000542-200610000-00024
Schreiber AL, McDonald BP, Kia F, Fried GW. Cervical epidural steroid injections and spinal cord injuries. Spine J. 2016;16:1163–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2015.08.068 .
doi: 10.1016/j.spinee.2015.08.068
pubmed: 26383496
Gustafsson H, Rutberg H, Bengtsson M. Spinal haematoma following epidural analgesia. Report of a patient with ankylosing spondylitis and a bleeding diathesis. Anaesthesia. 1988;43:220–2. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2044.1988.tb05546.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1988.tb05546.x
pubmed: 3284404
Hebl JR, Horlocker TT, Kopp SL, Schroeder DR. Neuraxial blockade in patients with preexisting spinal stenosis, lumbar disk disease, or prior spine surgery: efficacy and neurologic complications. Anesth Analg. 2010;111:1511–9. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181f71234 .
doi: 10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181f71234
pubmed: 20861423
Horlocker TT, Bajwa ZH, Ashraf Z, et al. Risk assessment of hemorrhagic complications associated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory medications in ambulatory pain clinic patients undergoing epidural steroid injection. Anesth Analg. 2002;95:1691–7, table of contents. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000539-200212000-00041
Shah RV, Kaye AD. Bleeding risk and interventional pain management. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2008;21:433–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACO.0b013e328306eb75 .
doi: 10.1097/ACO.0b013e328306eb75
pubmed: 18660648
Morse K, Weight M, Molinari R. Extensive postoperative epidural hematoma after full anticoagulation: case report and review of the literature. J Spinal Cord Med. 2007;30:282–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/10790268.2007.11753938 .
doi: 10.1080/10790268.2007.11753938
pubmed: 17684896
pmcid: 2031966
Goodman BS, Posecion LW, Mallempati S, Bayazitoglu M. Complications and pitfalls of lumbar interlaminar and transforaminal epidural injections. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2008;1:212–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12178-008-9035-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s12178-008-9035-2
pubmed: 19468908
pmcid: 2682416