Race, racism, and antiracism in emergency medicine: A scoping review of the literature and research agenda for the future.
Journal
Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine
ISSN: 1553-2712
Titre abrégé: Acad Emerg Med
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 9418450
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
11 2022
11 2022
Historique:
revised:
23
09
2022
received:
08
08
2022
accepted:
25
09
2022
pubmed:
7
10
2022
medline:
22
11
2022
entrez:
6
10
2022
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
The objective was to conduct a scoping review of the literature and develop consensus-derived research priorities for future research inquiry in an effort to (1) identify and summarize existing research related to race, racism, and antiracism in emergency medicine (EM) and adjacent fields and (2) set the agenda for EM research in these topic areas. A scoping review of the literature using PubMed and EMBASE databases, as well as review of citations from included articles, formed the basis for discussions with community stakeholders, who in turn helped to inform and shape the discussion and recommendations of participants in the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine (SAEM) consensus conference. Through electronic surveys and two virtual meetings held in April 2021, consensus was reached on terminology, language, and priority research questions, which were rated on importance or impact (highest, medium, lower) and feasibility or ease of answering (easiest, moderate, difficult). A total of 344 articles were identified through the literature search, of which 187 met inclusion criteria; an additional 34 were identified through citation review. Findings of racial inequities in EM and related fields were grouped in 28 topic areas, from which emerged 44 key research questions. A dearth of evidence for interventions to address manifestations of racism in EM was noted throughout. Evidence of racism in EM emerged in nearly every facet of our literature. Key research priorities identified through consensus processes provide a roadmap for addressing and eliminating racism and other systems of oppression in EM.
Types de publication
Review
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
1383-1398Informations de copyright
© 2022 Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.
Références
AMA Center for Health Equity. Advancing health equity: guide on language, narrative and concepts. American Medical Association and AAMC Center for Health Justice. 2021. Accessed September 1, 2022. ama-assn.org/equity-guide
Cleveland Manchanda EC, Couillard C, Sivashanker K. Inequity in crisis standards of care. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(4):e16.
White DB, Villarroel L, Hick JL. Inequitable access to hospital care - protecting disadvantaged populations during public health emergencies. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(24):2211-2214.
Rosenthal BM, Goldstein J, Otterman S, Fink S. Why surviving Covid might come down to which NYC hospital admits you. The New York times. 2021. Accessed September 1, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/01/nyregion/Coronavirus-hospitals.html
Kadri SS, Sun J, Lawandi A, et al. Association between caseload surge and COVID-19 survival in 558 U.S. hospitals, march to august 2020. Ann Intern Med. 2021;174(9):1240-1251.
Kanter GP, Segal AG, Groeneveld PW. Income disparities in access to critical care services. Health Aff (Millwood). 2020;39(8):1362-1367.
Lu FQ, Hanchate AD, Paasche-Orlow MK. Racial/ethnic disparities in emergency department wait times in the United States, 2013-2017. Am J Emerg Med. 2021;47:138-144.
Sonnenfeld N, Pitts SR, Schappert SM, Decker SL. Emergency department volume and racial and ethnic differences in waiting times in the United States on JSTOR. Med Care. 2012;50(4):335-341.
Banco D, Chang J, Talmor N, et al. Sex and race differences in the evaluation and treatment of young adults presenting to the emergency department with chest pain. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11(10):e024199. doi:10.1161/JAHA.121.024199
Eberly LA, Richterman A, Beckett AG, et al. Identification of racial inequities in access to specialized inpatient heart failure care at an academic medical center. Circ Heart Fail. 2019;12(11):e006214. doi:10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.119.006214
Landon BE, Onnela JP, Meneades L, O'Malley AJ, Keating NL. Assessment of racial disparities in primary care physician specialty referrals. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):e2029238.
Cai C, Gaffney A, McGregor A, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in outpatient visit rates across 29 specialties. JAMA Intern Med. 2021;181(11):1525-1527.
Hegland TA, Owens PL, Selden TM. New evidence on geographic disparities in United States hospital capacity. Health Serv Res. 2022;57(5):1006-1019.
Boyd RW. The case for desegregation. Lancet. 2019;393(10190):2484-2485.
Bailey ZD, Feldman JM, Bassett MT. How structural racism works - racist policies as a root cause of U.S. racial health inequities. N Engl J Med. 2021;384:768-773.
Coughlin TA, Ramos C, Samuel-Jakubos H. Safety Net Hospitals in the Covid-19 Crisis: How Five Hospitals Have Fared Financially. The Urban Institute; 2020.
Dossey L. Medical racism. Explore. 2015;11(3):165-174.
Nuriddin A, Mooney G, White AIR. Reckoning with histories of medical racism and violence in the USA. Lancet. 2020;396(10256):949-951.
Byrd WM, Clayton LA. Race, medicine, and health care in the United States: a historical survey. J Natl Med Assoc. 2001;93(3 Suppl):11S-34S.
Washington HA. Medical Apartheid: the Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present. 1st pbk. ed. Harlem Moon; 2006.
The history of African Americans and organized medicine. American Medical Association. c1995-2022. Accessed September 1, 2022. https://www.ama-assn.org/about/ama-history/history-african-americans-and-organized-medicine
Hicken MT, Kravitz-Wirtz N, Durkee M, Jackson JS. Racial inequalities in health: framing future research. Soc Sci Med. 2018;199:11-18.
Shaw KN, Bachur RG, Gorelick MH. Perspectives on urinary tract infection and race. JAMA Pediatr. 2020;174(9):910-911.
Vyas DA, Eisenstein LG, Jones DS. Hidden in plain sight-reconsidering the use of race correction in clinical algorithms. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(9):874-882.
Varcoe C, Bungay V, Browne AJ, et al. EQUIP emergency: study protocol for an organizational intervention to promote equity in health care. BMC Health Serv Res. 2019;19(1):687.
Greysen SR, Siegel B, Sears V, Solomon A, Jones K, Bradley EH. Residents' awareness of racial and ethnic disparities in cardiovascular care. J Grad Med Educ. 2011;3(3):417-420.
Salhi BA, Tsai JW, Druck J, Ward-Gaines J, White MH, Lopez BL. Toward structural competency in emergency medical education. AEM Educ Train. 2020;4(S1):S88-S97. doi:10.1002/aet2.10416
Devine PG, Forscher PS, Austin AJ, Cox WTL. Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: a prejudice habit-breaking intervention. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2012;48(6):1267-1278.
Natale JE, Asaro LA, Joseph JG, et al. Association of race and ethnicity with sedation management in pediatric intensive care. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2021;18(1):93-102.
Darby A, Martinez M, Orozco N, Perez M, Taira T. 78 implementation of a resident-driven diversity committee at an urban county emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2019;74(4):S30-S31.
Bruckner TA, Singh P, Yoon J, Chakravarthy B, Snowden LR. African American/white disparities in psychiatric emergencies among youth following rapid expansion of federally qualified health centers. Health Serv Res. 2020;55(1):26-34.
Lê CB. Effect of Medicaid managed care on racial disparities in health care access. Health Serv Res. 2007;42(1 pt 1):124-145.
Taylor YJ, Spencer MD, Mahabaleshwarkar R, Ludden T. Racial/ethnic differences in healthcare use among patients with uncontrolled and controlled diabetes. Ethn Health. 2019;24(3):245-256.
Zhang X, Carabello M, Hill T, Bell SA, Stephenson R, Mahajan P. Trends of racial/ethnic differences in emergency department care outcomes among adults in the United States from 2005 to 2016. Front Med. 2020;7:300.
Zogg CK, Jiang W, Chaudhary MA, et al. Racial disparities in emergency general surgery: do differences in outcomes persist among universally insured military patients? J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2016;80(5):764-777.
Fitzpatrick AM, Gillespie SE, Mauger DT, et al. Racial disparities in asthma-related health care use in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's severe asthma research program. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2019;143(6):2052-2061.
Law H-Z, Oraka E, Mannino DM. The role of income in reducing racial and ethnic disparities in emergency room and urgent care center visits for asthma-United States, 2001-2009. J Asthma. 2011;48(4):405-413.
Urquhart A, Clarke P. US racial/ethnic disparities in childhood asthma emergent health care use: National Health Interview Survey, 2013-2015. J Asthma. 2020;57(5):510-520.
Saadi A, Himmelstein DU, Woolhandler S, Mejia NI. Racial disparities in neurologic health care access and utilization in the United States. Neurology. 2017;88(24):2268-2275.
Nguyen GC, LaVeist TA, Harris ML, Wang M-H, Datta LW, Brant SR. Racial disparities in utilization of specialist care and medications in inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105(10):2202-2208.
Lim E, Gandhi K, Siriwardhana C, Davis J, Chen JJ. Racial and ethnic differences in mental health service utilization among the Hawaii medicaid population. J Ment Health. 2019;28(5):536-545.
Shen J, Washington E, Chung K, Bell R. Factors underlying racial disparities in hospital care of congestive heart failure. Ethn Dis. 2007;17:206-213.
Chalmers NI. Racial disparities in emergency department utilization for dental/oral health-related conditions in Maryland. Front Public Health. 2017;5:164.
Chaudhary MA, Sharma M, Scully RE, et al. Universal insurance and an equal access healthcare system eliminate disparities for black patients after traumatic injury. Surgery. 2018;163(4):651-656.
Klein JD, Shone LP, Szilagyi PG, Bajorska A, Wilson K, Dick AW. Impact of the state children's health insurance program on adolescents in New York. Pediatrics. 2007;119(4):e885-e892.
LaPlant MB, Hess DJ. A review of racial/ethnic disparities in pediatric trauma care, treatment, and outcomes. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2019;86(3):540-550.
Arthur M, Hedges JR, Newgard CD, Diggs BS, Mullins RJ. Racial disparities in mortality among adults hospitalized after injury. Med Care. 2008;46(2):192-199.
Haider AH, Weygandt PL, Bentley JM, et al. Disparities in trauma care and outcomes in the United States: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013;74(5):1195-1205.
Harris AR, Fisher GA, Thomas SH. Homicide as a medical outcome: racial disparity in deaths from assault in US level I and II trauma centers. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2012;72(3):773-782.
Scott VK, Hashmi ZG, Schneider EB, et al. Counting the lives lost: how many black trauma deaths are attributable to disparities? J Surg Res. 2013;184(1):480-487.
Glance LG, Osler TM, Mukamel DB, et al. Trends in racial disparities for injured patients admitted to trauma centers. Health Serv Res. 2013;48(5):1684-1703.
Haider AH, Hashmi ZG, Zafar SN, et al. Minority trauma patients tend to cluster at trauma centers with worse-than-expected mortality: can this phenomenon help explain racial disparities in trauma outcomes? Ann Surg. 2013;258(4):572-581.
Alrwisan A, Eworuke E. Are discrepancies in waiting time for chest pain at emergency departments between African Americans and whites improving over time? J Emerg Med. 2016;50(2):349-355.
Karve SJ, Balkrishnan R, Mohammad YM, Levine DA. Racial/ethnic disparities in emergency department waiting time for stroke patients in the United States. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2011;20(1):30-40.
Qiao WP, Powell ES, Witte MP, Zelder MR. Relationship between racial disparities in ED wait times and illness severity. Am J Emerg Med. 2016;34(1):10-15.
Wu BU, Banks PA, Conwell DL. Disparities in emergency department wait times for acute gastrointestinal illnesses: results from the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, 1997-2006. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104(7):1668-1673.
Pines JM, Russell Localio A, Hollander JE. Racial disparities in emergency department length of stay for admitted patients in the United States. Acad Emerg Med. 2009;16(5):403-410.
Wilson S, Dev S, Mahan M, Malhotra M, Miller J. Identifying disparity in emergency department length of stay and admission likelihood. World J Emerg Med. 2016;7(2):111-116.
Dennis JA. Racial/ethnic disparities in triage scores among pediatric emergency department fever patients. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2020;37:e1457-e1461. doi:10.1097/PEC.0000000000002072
Zook HG, Kharbanda AB, Flood A, Harmon B, Puumala SE, Payne NR. Racial differences in pediatric emergency department triage scores. J Emerg Med. 2016;50(5):720-727.
Kennel J, Withers E, Parsons N, Woo H. Racial/ethnic disparities in pain treatment: evidence from Oregon emergency medical services agencies. Med Care. 2019;57(12):924-929.
Benzing AC, Bell C, Derazin M, Mack R, MacIntosh T. Disparities in opioid pain management for long bone fractures. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020;7(4):740-745.
Joynt M, Train MK, Robbins BW, Halterman JS, Caiola E, Fortuna RJ. The impact of neighborhood socioeconomic status and race on the prescribing of opioids in emergency departments throughout the United States. J Gen Intern Med. 2013;28(12):1604-1610.
Lee P, Le Saux M, Siegel R, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in the management of acute pain in US emergency departments: meta-analysis and systematic review. Am J Emerg Med. 2019;37(9):1770-1777.
Rasooly IR, Mullins PM, Mazer-Amirshahi M, van den Anker J, Pines JM. The impact of race on analgesia use among pediatric emergency department patients. J Pediatr. 2014;165(3):618-621.
Siegelman J, Woods C, Oyewo A, Salhi B, Bryant A, Heron S. Disparities in pain management: an educational intervention using the implicit association test. West J Emerg Med. 2015;16(suppl):552.
Berger AJ, Wang Y, Rowe C, Chung B, Chang S, Haleblian G. Racial disparities in analgesic use amongst patients presenting to the emergency department for kidney stones in the United States. Am J Emerg Med. 2021;39:71-74.
Goyal MK, Kuppermann N, Cleary SD, Teach SJ, Chamberlain JM. Racial disparities in pain management of children with appendicitis in emergency departments. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(11):996-1002.
Kohns DJ, Haig AJ, Uren B, et al. Clinical predictors of the medical interventions provided to patients with low back pain in the emergency department. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil. 2018;31(1):197-204.
Lee HH, Lewis CW, McKinney CM. Disparities in emergency department pain treatment for toothache. JDR Clin Transl Res. 2016;1(3):226-233.
Mills AM, Shofer FS, Boulis AK, Holena DN, Abbuhl SB. Racial disparity in analgesic treatment for ED patients with abdominal or back pain. Am J Emerg Med. 2011;29(7):752-756.
Minick P, Clark PC, Dalton JA, Horne E, Greene D, Brown M. Long-bone fracture pain management in the emergency department. J Emerg Nurs. 2012;38(3):211-217.
Shah AA, Zogg CK, Zafar SN, et al. Analgesic access for acute abdominal pain in the emergency department among racial/ethnic minority patients: a nationwide examination. Med Care. 2015;53(12):1000-1009.
Singhal A, Tien Y-Y, Hsia RY. Racial-ethnic disparities in opioid prescriptions at emergency department visits for conditions commonly associated with prescription drug abuse. PLoS One. 2016;11(8):e0159224.
Hughes HK, Matsui EC, Tschudy MM, Pollack CE, Keet CA. Pediatric asthma health disparities: race, hardship, housing, and asthma in a National Survey. Acad Pediatr. 2017;17(2):127-134.
McDaniel M. Racial disparities in childhood asthma in the United States: evidence from the national health interview survey, 1997 to 2003. Pediatrics. 2006;117(5):e868-e877.
Venkat A, Hasegawa K, Basior JM, et al. Race/ethnicity and asthma management among adults presenting to the emergency department: race/ethnicity and asthma care. Respirology. 2015;20(6):994-997.
Akinbami LJ, Moorman JE, Garbe PL, Sondik EJ. Status of childhood asthma in the United States, 1980-2007. Pediatrics. 2009;123(Suppl 3):S131-S145.
Bai Y, Hillemeier MM, Lengerich EJ. Racial/ethnic disparities in symptom severity among children hospitalized with asthma. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2007;18(1):54-61.
El-Ekiaby A, Brianas L, Skowronski ME, et al. Impact of race on the severity of acute episodes of asthma and adrenergic responsiveness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174(5):508-513.
Akinbami LJ, Moorman JE, Simon AE, Schoendorf KC. Trends in racial disparities for asthma outcomes among children 0 to 17 years, 2001-2010. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134(3):547-553.e5.
Beck-Sague CM, Arrieta A, Pinzon-Iregui MC, et al. Trends in racial and ethnic disparities in childhood asthma in Miami, Florida: 2005-2013. J Immigr Minor Health. 2018;20(6):1429-1437.
Deshpande M, Look KA. Exploring factors associated with asthma-related emergency department visits among adults: a path analysis approach. Res Soc Adm Pharm. 2018;14(1):46-52.
Ginde AA, Espinola JA, Camargo CA. Improved overall trends but persistent racial disparities in emergency department visits for acute asthma, 1993-2005. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(2):313-318.
Lin SX, Younge RG, Kleinman LC. Does receiving care in a medical home reduce racial/ethnic disparities in ED visits among children with asthma in the United States? J Child Health Care. 2017;21(1):25-35.
Loftus PA, Wise SK. Epidemiology and economic burden of asthma. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol. 2015;5(Suppl 1):S7-S10.
Washington EL, Shen JJ, Bell R, Coleman C, Shi L. Patterns of hospital-based pediatric care across diverse ethnicities: the case of pneumonia. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2004;15(3):462-473.
Mayr FB, Yende S, D'Angelo G, et al. Do hospitals provide lower quality of care to black patients for pneumonia?*. Crit Care Med. 2010;38(3):759-765.
McDaniel JT. Emergency room visits for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Illinois counties: an epidemiological study based on the social ecological model. Chronic Illn. 2020;16(1):69-82.
Ajinkya S, Almallouhi E, Turner N, Al Kasab S, Holmstedt CA. Racial/ethnic disparities in acute ischemic stroke treatment within a Telestroke network. Telemed E-Health. 2020;26(10):1221-1225.
Bhattacharya P, Mada F, Salowich-Palm L, et al. Are racial disparities in stroke care still prevalent in certified stroke centers? J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2013;22(4):383-388.
Green AR, Carney DR, Pallin DJ, et al. Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for black and white patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22(9):1231-1238.
McGruder HF, Croft JB, Zheng Z-J. Characteristics of an “ill-defined” diagnosis for stroke: opportunities for improvement. Stroke. 2006;37(3):781-789.
Mendelson SJ, Aggarwal NT, Richards C, O'Neill K, Holl JL, Prabhakaran S. Racial disparities in refusal of stroke thrombolysis in Chicago. Neurology. 2018;90(5):e359-e364.
Raphael JL, Zhang Y, Liu H, Tapia CD, Giardino AP. Association of medical home care and disparities in emergency care utilization among children with special health care needs. Acad Pediatr. 2009;9(4):242-248.
Smith MA, Lisabeth LD, Bonikowski F, Morgenstern LB. The role of ethnicity, sex, and language on delay to hospital arrival for acute ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2010;41(5):905-909.
Malek AM, Adams RJ, Debenham E, et al. Patient awareness and perception of stroke symptoms and the use of 911. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2014;23(9):2362-2371.
Chamberlain JM, Joseph JG, Patel KM, Pollack MM. Differences in severity-adjusted pediatric hospitalization rates are associated with race/ethnicity. Pediatrics. 2007;119(6):e1319-e1324.
Dark T, Rust G, Sehres G, Harman JS. Racial disparities in healthcare utilization among individuals with cardiometabolic risk factors and comorbid anxiety disorder. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020;7(6):1234-1240.
Sripipatana A, Pourat N, Chen X, Zhou W, Lu C. Exploring racial/ethnic disparities in hypertension care among patients served by health centers in the United States. J Clin Hypertens. 2019;21(4):489-498.
Lo AX, Donnelly JP, Durant RW, et al. A National Study of U.S. emergency departments: racial disparities in hospitalizations for heart failure. Am J Prev Med. 2018;55(5):S31-S39.
Mackay MH, Ratner PA, Veenstra G, et al. Racism is not a factor in door-to-electrocardiogram times of patients with symptoms of acute coronary syndrome: a prospective observational Study. Acad Emerg Med. 2019;26(5):491-500.
Pearlman MK, Tanabe P, Mycyk MB, Zull DN, Stone DB. Evaluating disparities in door-to-EKG time for patients with noncardiac chest pain. J Emerg Nurs. 2008;34(5):414-418.
Takakuwa KM, Shofer FS, Hollander JE. The influence of race and gender on time to initial electrocardiogram for patients with chest pain. Acad Emerg Med. 2006;13(8):867-872.
McGruder HE, Greenlund KJ, Malarcher AM, Antoine TL, Croft JB, Zheng Z-J. Racial and ethnic disparities associated with knowledge of symptoms of heart attack and use of 911: National Health Interview Survey, 2001. Ethn Dis. 2008;18(2):192-197.
Musey PI, Kline JA. Do gender and race make a difference in acute coronary syndrome pretest probabilities in the emergency department? Acad Emerg Med. 2017;24(2):142-151.
Napoli AM, Choo EK, Dai J, Desroches B. Racial disparities in stress test utilization in an emergency department chest pain unit. Crit Pathw Cardiol. 2013;12(1):9-13.
Venkat A, Hoekstra J, Lindsell C, et al. The impact of race on the acute management of chest pain. Acad Emerg Med. 2003;10(11):11-1208.
Merchant RM, Becker LB, Yang F, Groeneveld PW. Hospital racial composition: a neglected factor in cardiac arrest survival disparities. Am Heart J. 2011;161(4):705-711.
Shen YC, Hsia RY. Do patients hospitalised in high-minority hospitals experience more diversion and poorer outcomes? A retrospective multivariate analysis of Medicare patients in California. BMJ Open. 2016;6(3):e010263.
Bruckner T, Kim Y, Snowden L. Racial/ethnic disparities in Children's emergency mental health after economic downturns. Adm Policy Ment Health. 2014;41(3):334-342.
Snowden LR, Masland MC, Libby AM, Wallace N, Fawley K. Racial/ethnic minority children's use of psychiatric emergency care in California's public mental health system. Am J Public Health. 2008;98(1):118-124.
Muroff J, Edelsohn GA, Joe S, Ford BC. The role of race in diagnostic and disposition decision making in a pediatric psychiatric emergency service. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2008;30(3):269-276.
Marrast L, Himmelstein DU, Woolhandler S. Racial and ethnic disparities in mental health care for children and young adults: a National Study. Int J Health Serv. 2016;46(4):810-824.
Schnitzer K, Merideth F, Macias-Konstantopoulos W, Hayden D, Shtasel D, Bird S. Disparities in care: the role of race on the utilization of physical restraints in the emergency setting. Acad Emerg Med. 2020;27(10):943-950.
Wong AH, Whitfill T, Ohuabunwa EC, et al. Association of race/ethnicity and other demographic characteristics with use of physical restraints in the emergency department. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):e2035241.
Goyal MK, Chamberlain JM, Webb M, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in the delayed diagnosis of appendicitis among children. Acad Emerg Med. 2021;28(9):949-956.
Wiehe SE, Rosenman MB, Wang J, Fortenberry JD. Disparities in chlamydia testing among young women with sexually transmitted infection symptoms. Sex Transm Dis. 2010;37(12):751-755.
Zimmer KP, Walker A, Minkovitz CS. Epidemiology of pediatric emergency department use at an urban medical center. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2005;21(2):84-89.
Smith DK, Chang M-H, Duffus WA, Okoye S, Weissman S. Missed opportunities to prescribe preexposure prophylaxis in South Carolina, 2013-2016. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68(1):37-42.
Goyal MK, Hayes KL, Mollen CJ. Racial disparities in testing for sexually transmitted infections in the emergency department: STI testing disparities. Acad Emerg Med. 2012;19(5):604-607.
Taylor SP, Karvetski CH, Templin MA, Taylor BT. Hospital differences drive antibiotic delays for black patients compared with White patients with suspected septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(2):e126-e131.
Strong BL, Torain JM, Greene CR, Smith GS. Outcomes of trauma admission for falls: influence of race and age on inhospital and post-discharge mortality. Am J Surg. 2016;212(4):638-644.
Baltrus P, Xu J, Immergluck L, Gaglioti A, Adesokan A, Rust G. Individual and county level predictors of asthma related emergency department visits among children on Medicaid: a multilevel approach. J Asthma. 2017;54(1):53-61.
Nardone A, Casey JA, Morello-Frosch R, Mujahid M, Balmes JR, Thakur N. Associations between historical residential redlining and current age-adjusted rates of emergency department visits due to asthma across eight cities in California: an ecological study. Lancet Planet Health. 2020;4(1):e24-e31.
Tung EL, Hampton DA, Kolak M, Rogers SO, Yang JP, Peek ME. Race/ethnicity and geographic access to urban trauma care. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(3):e190138.
Statter M, Schuble T, Harris-Rosado M, Liu D, Quinlan K. Targeting pediatric pedestrian injury prevention efforts: teasing the information through spatial analysis. J Trauma Inj Infect Crit Care. 2011;71(5):S511-S516.
Kerrison EM, Sewell AA. Negative illness feedbacks: high-frisk policing reduces civilian reliance on ED services. Health Serv Res. 2020;55(S2):787-796.
Mooney AC, McConville S, Rappaport AJ, Hsia RY. Association of legal intervention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(5):e182150.
Bogart LM, Landrine H, Galvan FH, Wagner GJ, Klein DJ. Perceived discrimination and physical health among HIV-positive black and Latino men who have sex with men. AIDS Behav. 2013;17(4):1431-1441.
Pickner WJ, Ziegler KM, Hanson JD, et al. Community perspectives on emergency department use and care for American Indian Children. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2018;5(5):939-946.
Skosireva A, O'Campo P, Zerger S, Chambers C, Gapka S, Stergiopoulos V. Different faces of discrimination: perceived discrimination among homeless adults with mental illness in healthcare settings. BMC Health Serv Res. 2014;14(1):376.
Tamayo-Sarver JH, Dawson NV, Hinze SW, et al. The effect of race/ethnicity and desirable social characteristics on physicians' decisions to prescribe opioid analgesics. Acad Emerg Med. 2003;10(11):1239-1248.
Haider AH, Schneider EB, Sriram N, et al. Unconscious race and social class bias among acute care surgical clinicians and clinical treatment decisions. JAMA Surg. 2015;150(5):457.
Maina I. Section on Emergency Medicine Program: A systematic review of implicit racial bias in healthcare. Pediatrics. 2018;141:337. doi:10.1542/peds.141.1MA4.337
Puumala SE, Burgess KM, Kharbanda AB, et al. The role of bias by emergency department providers in care for American Indian children. Med Care. 2016;54(6):562-569.
Johnson TJ, Winger DG, Hickey RW, et al. Comparison of physician implicit racial bias toward adults versus children. Acad Pediatr. 2017;17(2):120-126.
Johnson TJ, Hickey RW, Switzer GE, et al. The impact of cognitive stressors in the emergency department on physician implicit racial bias. Acad Emerg Med. 2016;23(3):297-305.
Dehon E, Weiss N, Jones J, Faulconer W, Hinton E, Sterling S. A systematic review of the impact of physician implicit racial bias on clinical decision making. Acad Emerg Med. 2017;24(8):895-904.
Padela AI, Schneider SM, He H, Ali Z, Richardson TM. Patient choice of provider type in the emergency department: perceptions and factors relating to accommodation of requests for care providers. Emerg Med J. 2010;27(6):465-469.
Solnick RE, Peyton K, Kraft-Todd G, Safdar B. Effect of physician gender and race on simulated patients' ratings and confidence in their physicians: a randomized trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(2):e1920511.
Emam GH, Alimohammadi H, Sadrabad AZ, Hatamabadi H. Workplace violence against residents in emergency department and reasons for not reporting them; a cross sectional study. Emerg (Tehran). 2018;6(1):e7. Accessed September 1, 2022. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5827053/
Li SF, Grant K, Bhoj T, et al. Resident experience of abuse and harassment in emergency medicine: ten years later. J Emerg Med. 2010;38(2):248-252.
Madsen TE, Linden JA, Rounds K, et al. Current status of gender and racial/ethnic disparities among academic emergency medicine physicians. Acad Emerg Med. 2017;24(10):1182-1192.
Manchanda EC, Chary A, Molina M, Dadabhoy F, Landry A. Resident-led health equity curriculum. West J Emerg Med. 2020;21(4.1 Suppl):S54-S55. Accessed September 1, 2022. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6z80x5ts
Whitehead M. The concepts and principles of equity and health. Int J Health Serv Plan Adm Eval. 1992;22(3):429-445.
Wellman DT. Portraits of White Racism. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press; 1993.
AAA Statement on Race. Executive board of the American Anthropological Association. 1998. Accessed September 1, 2022. https://www.americananthro.org/ConnectWithAAA/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2583
Kendi IX. How to Be an Antiracist. One World; 2019.
Lawrence K, Keleher T. Structural racism. Race and Public Policy Conference; 2004.
Jones CP. Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a gardener's tale. Am J Public Health. 2000;90(8):1212-1215.
Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychol Rev. 1995;102(1):4-27.