Racial disparities in dermatology.
Atopic dermatitis
Clinical trials
Dermatology
Disparities
Hidradenitis suppurativa
Machine learning
Mycosis fungoides
Psoriasis
Race
Skin cancer
Structural racism
Journal
Archives of dermatological research
ISSN: 1432-069X
Titre abrégé: Arch Dermatol Res
Pays: Germany
ID NLM: 8000462
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Jul 2023
Jul 2023
Historique:
received:
19
06
2022
accepted:
05
12
2022
revised:
04
12
2022
medline:
25
5
2023
pubmed:
13
12
2022
entrez:
12
12
2022
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Significant racial/ethnic disparities in dermatologic care and their subsequent impact on dermatologic conditions were recently reported. Contributing factors include socioeconomic factors, gaps in educational exposure, and underrepresentation of minority groups in the dermatologic workforce. In 2021, the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) announced its three-year plan to expand diversity, equity, and inclusion in dermatology. One way to reduce disparities in dermatology is for every dermatologist, regardless of race or ethnicity, to receive adequate education in diseases, treatments, health equity, and tailored approaches to delivering dermatologic care with cultural humility. In addition, a diverse dermatologic workforce-especially at the level of residency program educators and organizational leaders-will contribute to improved cross-cultural understanding, more inclusive research efforts, and improved treatment approaches for conditions that are more prevalent or nuanced in certain racial/ethnic populations. Finally, the dermatology and broader healthcare community needs to acknowledge and educate ourselves on the health impacts of racism.
Identifiants
pubmed: 36508020
doi: 10.1007/s00403-022-02507-z
pii: 10.1007/s00403-022-02507-z
pmc: PMC9743121
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
1215-1223Informations de copyright
© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.
Références
Taylor SC, Kyei A. Defining Skin of Color. In: Kelly AP, Taylor SC, Lim HW, Serrano AMA, eds. Taylor and Kelly's Dermatology for Skin of Color, 2e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.
Yousuf Y, Yu JC (2022) Improving representation of skin of color in a medical school preclerkship dermatology curriculum. Med Sci Educator 32(1):27–30
doi: 10.1007/s40670-021-01473-x
Wilson BN, Sun M, Ashbaugh AG et al (2021) Assessment of skin of color and diversity and inclusion content of dermatologic published literature: An analysis and call to action. Int J Womens Dermatol 7(4):391–397
pubmed: 34621950
pmcid: 8484942
doi: 10.1016/j.ijwd.2021.04.001
Buster KJ, Stevens EI, Elmets CA. Dermatologic health disparities. Dermatologic clinics. 2012;30(1):53–59, viii.
Lu JD, Sverdlichenko I, Siddiqi J, Khosa F (2021) Barriers to diversity and academic promotion in dermatology: recommendations moving forward. Dermatology 237(4):489–492
pubmed: 33823510
doi: 10.1159/000514537
Akhiyat S, Cardwell L, Sokumbi O (2020) Why dermatology is the second least diverse specialty in medicine: How did we get here? Clin Dermatol 38(3):310–315
pubmed: 32563342
doi: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2020.02.005
Lawson CN, Hollinger J, Sethi S et al (2017) Updates in the understanding and treatments of skin & hair disorders in women of color. Int J Womens Dermatol 3(1 Suppl):S21-s37
pubmed: 28492036
pmcid: 5419061
doi: 10.1016/j.ijwd.2017.02.006
Bureau UC. Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. population. In: Bureau UC, ed2015.
Tai DBG, Shah A, Doubeni CA, Sia IG, Wieland ML (2020) The disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 72(4):703–706
doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa815
Diversity In Dermatology: Diversity Committee Approved Plan 2021–2023 [press release]. 2021.
Marrast LM, Zallman L, Woolhandler S, Bor DH, McCormick D (2014) Minority physicians’ role in the care of underserved patients: diversifying the physician workforce may be key in addressing health disparities. JAMA Intern Med 174(2):289–291
pubmed: 24378807
doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.12756
Xierali IM, Nivet MA (2018) The racial and ethnic composition and distribution of primary care physicians. J Health Care Poor Underserved 29(1):556–570
pubmed: 29503317
pmcid: 5871929
doi: 10.1353/hpu.2018.0036
Gorbatenko-Roth K, Prose N, Kundu RV, Patterson S (2019) Assessment of black patients’ perception of their dermatology care. JAMA Dermatol 155(10):1129–1134
pubmed: 31433446
pmcid: 6704753
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2019.2063
Grayson C, Heath C (2021) An approach to examining tightly coiled hair among patients with hair loss in race-discordant patient-physician interactions. JAMA Dermatol 157(5):505–506
pubmed: 33787820
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2021.0338
Jones NL, Heath CR (2021) Hair at the intersection of dermatology and anthropology: a conversation on race and relationships. Pediatr Dermatol 38(S2):158–160
pubmed: 34342039
doi: 10.1111/pde.14721
Grayson C, Heath CR (2021) Counseling about traction alopecia: a “compliment, discuss, and suggest” method. Cutis 108(1):20–22
pubmed: 34397353
doi: 10.12788/cutis.0297
Xierali IM, Fair, M.A., Nivet, M.A. Faculty Diversity in U.S. Medical Schools: Progress and Gaps Coexist. Analysis in brief. 2016;16(6).
Xierali IM, Nivet MA, Pandya AG (2020) US dermatology department faculty diversity trends by sex and underrepresented-in-medicine status, 1970 to 2018. JAMA Dermatol 156(3):280–287
pubmed: 31913403
pmcid: 6990830
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2019.4297
Smith MM, Rose SH, Schroeder DR, Long TR (2015) Diversity of United States medical students by region compared to US census data. Adv Med Educ Pract 6:367–372
pubmed: 26028982
pmcid: 4440421
Van Voorhees AS, Enos CW (2017) Diversity in dermatology residency programs. J Investigative Dermatol Symp Proc 18(2):S46–S49
doi: 10.1016/j.jisp.2017.07.001
AAMC. Residency applicants from U.S. M.D.-granting medical schools by specialty, race/ethnicity, 2020. 2020; https://www.aamc.org/media/39371/download . Accessed February 23, 2021.
Boatright D, Ross D, O’Connor P, Moore E, Nunez-Smith M (2017) Racial disparities in medical student membership in the alpha omega alpha honor society. JAMA Intern Med 177(5):659–665
pubmed: 28264091
pmcid: 5818775
doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.9623
Low D, Pollack SW, Liao ZC et al (2019) Racial/ethnic disparities in clinical grading in medical school. Teach Learn Med 31(5):487–496
pubmed: 31032666
doi: 10.1080/10401334.2019.1597724
Teherani A, Hauer KE, Fernandez A, King TE Jr, Lucey C (2018) How small differences in assessed clinical performance amplify to large differences in grades and awards: a cascade with serious consequences for students underrepresented in medicine. Acad Med 93(9):1286–1292
pubmed: 29923892
doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000002323
Soliman YS, Rzepecki AK, Guzman AK et al (2019) Understanding perceived barriers of minority medical students pursuing a career in dermatology. JAMA Dermatol 155(2):252–254
pubmed: 30624570
pmcid: 6439537
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.4813
Lester JC, Jia JL, Zhang L, Okoye GA, Linos E (2020) Absence of images of skin of colour in publications of COVID-19 skin manifestations. Br J Dermatol 183(3):593–595
pubmed: 32471009
pmcid: 7301030
doi: 10.1111/bjd.19258
Freeman EE, McMahon DE, Lipoff JB et al (2020) The spectrum of COVID-19-associated dermatologic manifestations: an international registry of 716 patients from 31 countries. J Am Acad Dermatol 83(4):1118–1129
pubmed: 32622888
pmcid: 7331510
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2020.06.1016
Lester JC, Taylor SC, Chren MM (2019) Under-representation of skin of colour in dermatology images: not just an educational issue. Br J Dermatol 180(6):1521–1522
pubmed: 31157429
doi: 10.1111/bjd.17608
Nijhawan RI, Jacob SE, Woolery-Lloyd H (2008) Skin of color education in dermatology residency programs: Does residency training reflect the changing demographics of the United States? J Am Acad Dermatol 59(4):615–618
pubmed: 18657339
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2008.06.024
Ebede T, Papier A (2006) Disparities in dermatology educational resources. J Am Acad Dermatol 55(4):687–690
pubmed: 17010750
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2005.10.068
Louie P, Wilkes R (2018) Representations of race and skin tone in medical textbook imagery. Soc Sci Med 202:38–42
pubmed: 29501717
doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.023
Adelekun A, Onyekaba G, Lipoff JB (2021) Skin color in dermatology textbooks: an updated evaluation and analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol 84(1):194–196
pubmed: 32335181
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2020.04.084
Fenton A, Elliott E, Shahbandi A et al (2020) Medical students’ ability to diagnose common dermatologic conditions in skin of color. J Am Acad Dermatol 83(3):957–958
pubmed: 32017947
pmcid: 7447081
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2019.12.078
Culp MB, Lunsford NB (2019) Melanoma Among Non-Hispanic Black Americans. Prev Chronic Dis 16:E79
pubmed: 31228233
pmcid: 6638592
doi: 10.5888/pcd16.180640
Adamson AS, Zhou L, Baggett CD, Thomas NE, Meyer A-M (2017) Association of delays in surgery for melanoma with insurance type. JAMA Dermatol 153(11):1106–1113
pubmed: 28979974
pmcid: 5710439
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.3338
Buster KJ, Stevens EI, Elmets CA. Dermatologic health disparities. Dermatologic clinics. 2012;30(1):53-viii.
Esteva A, Kuprel B, Novoa RA et al (2017) Dermatologist-level classification of skin cancer with deep neural networks. Nature 542(7639):115–118
pubmed: 28117445
pmcid: 8382232
doi: 10.1038/nature21056
Haenssle HA, Fink C, Schneiderbauer R et al (2018) Man against machine: diagnostic performance of a deep learning convolutional neural network for dermoscopic melanoma recognition in comparison to 58 dermatologists. Ann Oncol 29(8):1836–1842
pubmed: 29846502
doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdy166
Adamson AS, Smith A (2018) Machine learning and health care disparities in dermatology. JAMA Dermatol 154(11):1247–1248
pubmed: 30073260
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.2348
Tripathi R, Knusel KD, Ezaldein HH, Scott JF, Bordeaux JS (2018) Association of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics with differences in use of outpatient dermatology services in the United States. JAMA Dermatol 154(11):1286–1291
pubmed: 30267073
pmcid: 6248122
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.3114
Orenstein LAV, Nelson MM, Wolner Z, et al. Differences in Outpatient Dermatology Encounter Work Relative Value Units and Net Payments by Patient Race, Sex, and Age. JAMA Dermatology. 2021.
Are there racial disparities in health-related quality of life in patients with skin disease? Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2008;58(2):AB76.
Bell MA, Whang KA, Thomas J, Aguh C, Kwatra SG (2020) Racial and ethnic disparities in access to emerging and frontline therapies in common dermatological conditions: a cross-sectional study. J Natl Med Assoc 112(6):650–653
pubmed: 32641259
Rogers AT, Semenov YR, Kwatra SG, Okoye GA (2018) Racial disparities in the management of acne: evidence from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, 2005–2014. J Dermatolog Treat 29(3):287–289
pubmed: 28831837
doi: 10.1080/09546634.2017.1371836
Barbieri JS, Shin DB, Wang S, Margolis DJ, Takeshita J (2020) Association of race/ethnicity and sex with differences in health care use and treatment for acne. JAMA Dermatol 156(3):312–319
pubmed: 32022834
pmcid: 7042795
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2019.4818
Kerr GS, Qaiyumi S, Richards J et al (2015) Psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis in African-American patients—the need to measure disease burden. Clin Rheumatol 34(10):1753–1759
pubmed: 25164561
doi: 10.1007/s10067-014-2763-3
Takeshita J, Gelfand JM, Li P et al (2015) Psoriasis in the US medicare population: prevalence, treatment, and factors associated with biologic use. J Investig Dermatol 135(12):2955–2963
pubmed: 26214380
doi: 10.1038/jid.2015.296
Takeshita J, Eriksen WT, Raziano VT et al (2019) Racial differences in perceptions of psoriasis therapies: implications for racial disparities in psoriasis treatment. J Investig Dermatol 139(8):1672-1679.e1671
pubmed: 30738054
doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2018.12.032
Okoye GA, Newsome A, McKay S, Harvey VM (2016) Health disparities in mycosis fungoides. Cogent Medicine 3(1):1134041
doi: 10.1080/2331205X.2015.1134041
Agi C, Kuhn D, Chung J, Zampella J, Hinds G (2015) Racial differences in the use of extracorporeal photopheresis for mycosis fungoides. J Dermatol Treat 26(3):266–268
doi: 10.3109/09546634.2014.946381
Huang AH, Kwatra SG, Khanna R, Semenov YR, Okoye GA, Sweren RJ (2019) Racial disparities in the clinical presentation and prognosis of patients with mycosis fungoides. J Natl Med Assoc 111(6):633–639
pubmed: 31623818
Su C, Nguyen KA, Bai HX et al (2017) Racial disparity in mycosis fungoides: an analysis of 4495 cases from the US National Cancer Database. J Am Acad Dermatol 77(3):497-502.e492
pubmed: 28645647
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2017.04.1137
Garg A, Wertenteil S, Baltz R, Strunk A, Finelt N (2018) Prevalence estimates for hidradenitis suppurativa among children and adolescents in the united states: a gender- and age-adjusted population analysis. J Invest Dermatol 138(10):2152–2156
pubmed: 29660301
doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2018.04.001
Lee DE, Clark AK, Shi VY (2017) Hidradenitis suppurativa: disease burden and etiology in skin of color. Dermatology 233(6):456–461
pubmed: 29495009
doi: 10.1159/000486741
Price KN, Hsiao JL, Shi VY. Race and Ethnicity Gaps in Global Hidradenitis Suppurativa Clinical Trials. Dermatology. 2019:1–6.
Patel KR, Lee HH, Rastogi S, et al. Association between hidradenitis suppurativa, depression, anxiety, and suicidality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2019.
Williams DR, Priest N, Anderson NB (2016) Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: patterns and prospects. Health Psychol 35(4):407–411
pubmed: 27018733
pmcid: 4817358
doi: 10.1037/hea0000242
Dunlop DD, Song J, Lyons JS, Manheim LM, Chang RW (2003) Racial/ethnic differences in rates of depression among preretirement adults. Am J Public Health 93(11):1945–1952
pubmed: 14600071
pmcid: 1199525
doi: 10.2105/AJPH.93.11.1945
Narla SH, N., Hamazavi, I.H. Skin of Color. In: Shi VY, Hsaio, J.L., Lowes, M., Hamzavi, I.H. , ed. A Comprehensive Guide to Hidradenitis Suppurativa. First ed: Elsevier; 2022.
Anzaldi L, Perkins JA, Byrd AS, Kharrazi H, Okoye GA. Characterizing inpatient hospitalizations for hidradenitis suppurativa in the United States. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2019.
Vengalil N, Nakamura, M., Helfrich, Y. . Analyzing the Distribution of Dermatologists in the Urban Setting: Comparing Zip Codes with High and Low Representation of African Americans. American Academy of Dermatology; 2020.
Sisic M, Tan J, Lafreniere KD (2017) Hidradenitis suppurativa, intimate partner violence, and sexual assault. J Cutan Med Surg 21(5):383–387
pubmed: 28481644
doi: 10.1177/1203475417708167
Stockman JK, Hayashi H, Campbell JC (2015) Intimate partner violence and its health impact on ethnic minority women [corrected]. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 24(1):62–79
pubmed: 25551432
doi: 10.1089/jwh.2014.4879
Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF et al (2014) Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the infectious diseases society of America. Clinical Infect Dis 59(2):e10-52
doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu296
Wurcel AG, Essien UR, Ortiz C et al (2021) Variation by race in antibiotics prescribed for hospitalized patients with skin and soft tissue infections. JAMA Netw Open 4(12):e2140798–e2140798
pubmed: 34940871
pmcid: 8703249
doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.40798
Ware OR, Dawson JE, Shinohara MM, Taylor SC (2020) Racial limitations of fitzpatrick skin type. Cutis 105(2):77–80
pubmed: 32186531
Leenutaphong V (1996) Relationship between skin color and cutaneous response to ultraviolet radiation in Thai. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 11(5–6):198–203
He SY, McCulloch CE, Boscardin WJ, Chren M-M, Linos E, Arron ST (2014) Self-reported pigmentary phenotypes and race are significant but incomplete predictors of Fitzpatrick skin phototype in an ethnically diverse population. J Am Acad Dermatol 71(4):731–737
pubmed: 24928709
pmcid: 4165764
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2014.05.023
Kaufman BP, Guttman-Yassky E, Alexis AF (2018) Atopic dermatitis in diverse racial and ethnic groups—variations in epidemiology, genetics, clinical presentation and treatment. Exp Dermatol 27(4):340–357
pubmed: 29457272
doi: 10.1111/exd.13514
Ben-Gashir MA, Hay RJ (2002) Reliance on erythema scores may mask severe atopic dermatitis in black children compared with their white counterparts. Br J Dermatol 147(5):920–925
pubmed: 12410701
doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.04965.x
Vachiramon V, Tey HL, Thompson AE, Yosipovitch G (2012) Atopic dermatitis in African American children: addressing unmet needs of a common disease. Pediatr Dermatol 29(4):395–402
pubmed: 22471955
doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2012.01740.x
Zhao CY, Wijayanti A, Doria MC et al (2015) The reliability and validity of outcome measures for atopic dermatitis in patients with pigmented skin: a grey area. Int J Womens Dermatol 1(3):150–154
pubmed: 28491979
pmcid: 5418878
doi: 10.1016/j.ijwd.2015.05.002
Alexis AF, Blackcloud P (2014) Psoriasis in skin of color: epidemiology, genetics, clinical presentation, and treatment nuances. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol 7(11):16–24
pubmed: 25489378
pmcid: 4255694
Charrow A, Xia FD, Joyce C, Mostaghimi A (2017) Diversity in dermatology clinical trials: a systematic review. JAMA Dermatol 153(2):193–198
pubmed: 28055072
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2016.4129
Bhattacharya T, Silverberg JI (2014) Efficacy of systemic treatments for atopic dermatitis in racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. JAMA Dermatol 150(11):1232–1234
pubmed: 25207604
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2014.1674
Price KN, Krase JM, Loh TY, Hsiao JL, Shi VY (2020) Racial and ethnic disparities in global atopic dermatitis clinical trials. Br J Dermatol 183(2):378–380
pubmed: 32030728
doi: 10.1111/bjd.18938
Kailas A, Dawkins M, Taylor SC (2017) Suggestions for increasing diversity in clinical trials. JAMA Dermatol 153(7):727
pubmed: 28445572
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2017.0850
Shaw MG, Morrell DS, Corbie-Smith GM, Goldsmith LA (2009) Perceptions of pediatric clinical research among African American and Caucasian parents. J Natl Med Assoc 101(9):900–907
pubmed: 19806847
Arenbergerova M, Gkalpakiotis S, Arenberger P (2010) Effective long-term control of refractory hidradenitis suppurativa with adalimumab after failure of conventional therapy. Int J Dermatol 49(12):1445–1449
pubmed: 21091684
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2010.04638.x
Kimball AB, Kerdel F, Adams D et al (2012) Adalimumab for the treatment of moderate to severe Hidradenitis suppurativa: a parallel randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 157(12):846–855
pubmed: 23247938
doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-157-12-201212180-00004
Kimball AB, Okun MM, Williams DA et al (2016) Two phase 3 trials of adalimumab for Hidradenitis Suppurativa. N Engl J Med 375(5):422–434
pubmed: 27518661
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1504370
Miller I, Lynggaard CD, Lophaven S, Zachariae C, Dufour DN, Jemec GB (2011) A double-blind placebo-controlled randomized trial of adalimumab in the treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa. Br J Dermatol 165(2):391–398
pubmed: 21457202
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2011.10339.x
Blok JL, Li K, Brodmerkel C, Horvatovich P, Jonkman MF, Horvath B (2016) Ustekinumab in hidradenitis suppurativa: clinical results and a search for potential biomarkers in serum. Br J Dermatol 174(4):839–846
pubmed: 26641739
doi: 10.1111/bjd.14338
Pelekanou A, Kanni T, Savva A et al (2010) Long-term efficacy of etanercept in hidradenitis suppurativa: results from an open-label phase II prospective trial. Exp Dermatol 19(6):538–540
pubmed: 19758320
doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2009.00967.x
Grant A, Gonzalez T, Montgomery MO, Cardenas V, Kerdel FA (2010) Infliximab therapy for patients with moderate to severe hidradenitis suppurativa: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 62(2):205–217
pubmed: 20115947
doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2009.06.050
Tzanetakou V, Kanni T, Giatrakou S et al (2016) Safety and efficacy of anakinra in severe hidradenitis suppurativa: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Dermatol 152(1):52–59
pubmed: 26579854
doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2015.3903
Bailey ZD, Feldman JM, Bassett MT. How Structural Racism Works - Racist Policies as a Root Cause of U.S. Racial Health Inequities. The New England journal of medicine. 2021;384(8):768–773.
Gee GC, Ford CL (2011) Structural racism and health inequities: old issues. New Directions Du Bois Rev 8(1):115–132
pubmed: 25632292
doi: 10.1017/S1742058X11000130
Berger M, Sarnyai Z (2015) “More than skin deep”: stress neurobiology and mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Stress (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 18(1):1–10
pubmed: 25407297
doi: 10.3109/10253890.2014.989204
Tackett KJ, Jenkins F, Morrell DS, McShane DB, Burkhart CN. Structural racism and its influence on the severity of atopic dermatitis in African American children. Pediatric dermatology. 2019.
Namin S, Xu W, Zhou Y, Beyer K (2020) The legacy of the home owners’ loan corporation and the political ecology of urban trees and air pollution in the United States. Soc Sci Med 246:112758
pubmed: 31884239
doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112758
Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT (2017) Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. Lancet (London, England) 389(10077):1453–1463
pubmed: 28402827
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X
Hardeman RR, Murphy KA, Karbeah J, Kozhimannil KB (2018) Naming institutionalized racism in the public health literature: a systematic literature review. Public Health Rep 133(3):240–249
pubmed: 29614234
pmcid: 5958385
doi: 10.1177/0033354918760574