Executive functioning skills and their environmental predictors among pre-school aged children in South Africa and The Gambia.
South Africa
The Gambia
executive functions
global child development
socioeconomic status
Journal
Developmental science
ISSN: 1467-7687
Titre abrégé: Dev Sci
Pays: England
ID NLM: 9814574
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
01 May 2023
01 May 2023
Historique:
revised:
11
04
2023
received:
07
10
2022
accepted:
18
04
2023
medline:
2
5
2023
pubmed:
2
5
2023
entrez:
2
5
2023
Statut:
aheadofprint
Résumé
Executive functions (EFs) in early childhood are predictors of later developmental outcomes and school readiness. Much of the research on EFs and their psychosocial correlates has been conducted in high-income, minority world countries, which represent a small and biased portion of children globally. The aim of this study is to examine EFs among children aged 3-5 years in two African countries, South Africa (SA) and The Gambia (GM), and to explore shared and distinct predictors of EFs in these settings. The SA sample (N = 243, 51.9% female) was recruited from low-income communities within the Cape Town Metropolitan area. In GM, participants (N = 171, 49.7% female) were recruited from the rural West Kiang region. EFs, working memory (WM), inhibitory control (IC) and cognitive flexibility (CF), were measured using tablet-based tasks. Associations between EF task performance and indicators of socioeconomic status (household assets, caregiver education) and family enrichment factors (enrichment activities, diversity of caregivers) were assessed. Participants in SA scored higher on all EF tasks, but children in both sites predominantly scored within the expected range for their age. There were no associations between EFs and household or familial variables in SA, except for a trend-level association between caregiver education and CF. Patterns were similar in GM, where there was a trend-level association between WM and enrichment activities but no other relationships. We challenge the postulation that children in low-income settings have poorer EFs, simply due to lower socioeconomic status, but highlight the need to identify predictors of EFs in diverse, global settings. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Assessed Executive Functioning (EF) skills and their psychosocial predictors among pre-school aged children (aged 3-5 years) in two African settings (The Gambia and South Africa). On average, children within each setting performed within the expected range for their age, although children in South Africa had higher scores across tasks. There was little evidence of any association between socioeconomic variables and EFs in either site. Enrichment activities were marginally associated with better working memory in The Gambia, and caregiver education with cognitive flexibility in South Africa, both associations were trend-level significance.
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
e13407Informations de copyright
© 2023 The Authors. Developmental Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Références
Ahmed, I., Steyer, L., Suntheimer, N. M., Wolf, S., & Obradović, J. (2022). Directly assessed and adult-reported executive functions: Associations with academic skills in Ghana. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 81, 101437. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APPDEV.2022.101437
Amukune, S., Barrett, K. C., Szabó, N., & Józsa, K. (2022). Development and application of FOCUS app for assessment of approaches to learning in 3-8-year-old children in Kenya: A design-based research approach. International Journal of Early Childhood, 55, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-022-00324-z
Armstrong-Carter, E., Finch, J. E., Siyal, S., Yousafzai, A. K., & Obradović, J. (2020). Biological sensitivity to context in Pakistani preschoolers: Hair cortisol and family wealth are interactively associated with girls’ cognitive skills. Developmental Psychobiology, 62(8), 1046-1061. https://doi.org/10.1002/DEV.21981
Bhavnani, S., Mukherjee, D., Dasgupta, J., Verma, D., Parameshwaran, D., Divan, G., Sharma, K. K., Thiagarajan, T., & Patel, V. (2019). Development, feasibility and acceptability of a gamified cognitive DEvelopmental assessment on an E-Platform (DEEP) in rural Indian pre-schoolers - a pilot study. Global Health Action, 12(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2018.1548005
Bietenbeck, J., Ericsson, S., & Wamalwa, F. M. (2019). Preschool attendance, schooling, and cognitive skills in East Africa. Economics of Education Review, 73, 101909. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECONEDUREV.2019.101909
Black, M. M., Yimgang, D. P., Hurley, K. M., Harding, K. B., Fernandez-Rao, S., Balakrishna, N., Radhakrishna, K. V., Reinhart, G. A., & Nair, K. M. (2019). Mechanisms linking height to early child development among infants and preschoolers in rural India. Developmental Science, 22(5), e12806. https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12806
Blimpo, M. P., Carneiro, P., Jervis, P., & Pugatch, T. (2022). Improving access and quality in early childhood development programs: Experimental evidence from the Gambia. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 70(4), 1479-1529. https://doi.org/10.1086/714013/SUPPL_FILE/20231APPENDIX.PDF
Blimpo, M. P., Evans, D. K., Lahire, N., Filmer, D., Legovini, A., Bentaouet Kattan, R., Lo, M., Patrinos, H., & Sawada, Y. (2015). Parental Human Capital and Effective School Management Evidence from The Gambia (English). Policy Research working paper, no. WPS 7238, Impact Evaluation series. World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/923441468191341801/Parental-human-capital-and-effective-school-management-evidence-from-The-Gambia
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2005). Caring for children around the world: A view from HOME. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29(6), 468-478. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650250500146925
Brotherton, H., Daly, M., Johm, P., Jarju, B., Schellenberg, J., Penn-Kekana, L., & Lawn, J. E. (2021). “We All Join Hands”: Perceptions of the Kangaroo method among female relatives of newborns in the Gambia. Qualitative Health Research, 31(4), 665. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732320976365
CEICdata.com. (2018). Gambia GM: School Enrollment: Primary: % Gross. Economic Indicators. https://www.Ceicdata.Com/En/Gambia/Education-Statistics/Gm-School-Enrollment-Primary-Gross
Chavajay, P. (2008). Organizational patterns in problem solving among mayan fathers and children. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 882-888. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.882
Chavajay, P. (2016). How Mayan mothers with different amounts of schooling organize a problem-solving discussion with children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30(4), 371-382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025406066744
Chavajay, P., & Rogoff, B. (2002). Schooling and traditional collaborative social organization of problem solving by Mayan mothers and children. Developmental Psychology, 38(1), 55-66. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.38.1.55
Chipps, J., Pimmer, C., Brysiewicz, P., Walters, F., Linxen, S., Ndebele, T., & Gröhbiel, U. (2015). Using mobile phones and social media to facilitate education and support for rural-based midwives in South Africa. Curationis, 38(2), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4102/CURATIONIS.V38I2.1500
Chung, S., Kim, I., Kim, H., Ma, Y., & Park, B. (2018). Validation study of the Korean version of early years toolbox (EYT). Korean Journal of Child Studies, 39(6), 131-142. https://doi.org/10.5723/KJCS.2018.39.6.131
Cook, C. J., Draper, C., Howard, S., Merkley, R., & Scerif, G. (2022). Back to the drawing board: Rethinking potential predictors of preschool executive function in low-income South Africa. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 44, 2891-2896. www.escholarship.org/uc/item/37q290qh
Cook, C. J., Howard, S. J., Cuartas, J., Makaula, H., Merkley, R., Mshudulu, M., Tshetu, N., Scerif, G., & Draper, C. E. (2022). Child exposure to violence and self-regulation in South African preschool-age children from low-income settings. Child Abuse & Neglect, 134, 105944. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHIABU.2022.105944
Cook, C. J., Howard, S. J., Scerif, G., Twine, R., Kahn, K., Norris, S. A., & Draper, C. E. (2019). Associations of physical activity and gross motor skills with executive function in preschool children from low-income South African settings. Developmental Science, 22(5), e12820. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12820
Dahlman, S., Bäckström, P., Bohlin, G., & Frans, Ö. (2013). Cognitive abilities of street children: Low-SES Bolivian boys with and without experience of living in the street. Child Neuropsychology : A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 19(5), 540-556. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2012.731499
Dawes, A., Biersteker, L., Girdwood, L., Snelling, M., & Horler, J. (2020). Early Learning Programme Outcomes Study Technical Report. Claremont Cape Town: Innovation Edge (www.innovationedge.org.za) and Ilifa Labantwana (www.ilifalabantwana.co.za)
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-PSYCH-113011-143750
Draper, C. E., Cook, C. J., Howard, S. J., Makaula, H., Merkley, R., Mshudulu, M., Tshetu, N., & Scerif, G. (2023). Caregiver perspectives of risk and protective factors influencing early childhood development in low-income, urban settings: A social ecological perspective. Infant and Child Development, e2417. https://doi.org/10.1002/ICD.2417
Dutra, N. B., Chen, L., Anum, A., Burger, O., Davis, H. E., Dzokoto, V. A., Fong, F. T. K., Ghelardi, S., Mendez, K., Messer, E. J. E., Newhouse, M., Nielsen, M. G., Ramos, K., Rawlings, B., Santos, R. A. C., dos Silveira, L. G. S., Tucker-Drob, E. M., & Legare, C. H. (2022). Examining relations between performance on non-verbal executive function and verbal self-regulation tasks in demographically-diverse populations. Developmental Science, 25(5), e13228. https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.13228
Ellis, B. J., Abrams, L. S., Masten, A. S., Sternberg, R. J., Tottenham, N., & Frankenhuis, W. E. (2022). Hidden talents in harsh environments. Development and Psychopathology, 34(1), 95-113. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420000887
Ellis, B. J., Sheridan, M. A., Belsky, J., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2022). Why and how does early adversity influence development? Toward an integrated model of dimensions of environmental experience. Development and Psychopathology, 34(2), 447-471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421001838
Familiar, I., Chernoff, M., Ruisenor-Escudero, H., Laughton, B., Joyce, C., Fairlie, L., Vhembo, T., Kamthunzi, P., Barlow-Barlow, L., Zimmer, B., McCarthy, K., & Boivin, M. J. (2020). Association between caregiver depression symptoms and child executive functioning. Results from an observational study carried out in four sub-Saharan countries. AIDS Care, 32(4), 486. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2019.1659917
Fernald, L. C. H., Weber, A., Galasso, E., & Ratsifandrihamanana, L. (2011). Socioeconomic gradients and child development in a very low income population: Evidence from Madagascar. Developmental Science, 14(4), 832-847. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-7687.2010.01032.X
Gaskins, S., & Alcalá, L. (2023). Studying Executive Function in Culturally Meaningful Ways. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2022.2160722
Hackman, D. A., & Farah, M. J. (2009). Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(2), 65-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TICS.2008.11.003
Hackman, D. A., Gallop, R., Evans, G. W., & Farah, M. J. (2015). Socioeconomic status and executive function: Developmental trajectories and mediation. Developmental Science, 18(5), 686-702. https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12246
Haft, S. L., & Hoeft, F. (2017). Poverty's impact on children's executive functions: Global considerations. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2017(158), 69. https://doi.org/10.1002/CAD.20220
Hall, K., Sambu, W., Almeleh, C., Mabaso, C., Giese, S., & Proudlock, P. (2019). South African Early Childhood Review 2019.
Hendry, A., Jones, E. J. H., & Charman, T. (2016). Executive function in the first three years of life: Precursors, predictors and patterns. Developmental Review, 42, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DR.2016.06.005
Hennig, B. J., Unger, S. A., Dondeh, B. L., Hassan, J., Hawkesworth, S., Jarjou, L., Jones, K. S., Moore, S. E., Nabwera, H. M., Ngum, M., Prentice, A., Sonko, B., Prentice, A. M., & Fulford, A. J. (2015). Cohort profile: The Kiang West Longitudinal Population Study (KWLPS) - A platform for integrated research and health care provision in rural Gambia. International Journal of Epidemiology, 13, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv206
Howard, S. J., Cook, C. J., Everts, L., Melhuish, E., Scerif, G., Norris, S., Twine, R., Kahn, K., & Draper, C. E. (2020). Challenging socioeconomic status: A cross-cultural comparison of early executive function. Developmental Science, 23(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12854
Howard, S. J., & Melhuish, E. (2017). An early years toolbox for assessing early executive function, language, self-regulation, and social development: Validity, reliability, and preliminary norms. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 35(3), 255-275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916633009
Howe, L. D., Galobardes, B., Matijasevich, A., Gordon, D., Johnston, D., Onwujekwe, O., Patel, R., Webb, E. A., Lawlor, D. A., & Hargreaves, J. R. (2012). Measuring socio-economic position for epidemiological studies in low- and middle-income countries: A methods of measurement in epidemiology paper. International Journal of Epidemiology, 41(3), 871-886. https://doi.org/10.1093/IJE/DYS037
Husseini, M., Darboe, M. K., Moore, S. E., Nabwera, H. M., & Prentice, A. M. (2018). Thresholds of socio-economic and environmental conditions necessary to escape from childhood malnutrition: A natural experiment in rural Gambia. BMC Medicine, 16(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12916-018-1179-3/TABLES/3
Jasińska, K. K., Zinszer, B., Xu, Z., Hannon, J., Seri, A. B., Tanoh, F., & Akpé, Y. H. (2022). Home learning environment and physical development impact children's executive function development and literacy in rural Côte d'Ivoire. Cognitive Development, 64, 101265. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COGDEV.2022.101265
Johm, P., Nkoum, N., Ceesay, A., Mbaye, E. H., Larson, H., & Kampmann, B. (2021). Factors influencing acceptance of vaccination during pregnancy in The Gambia and Senegal. Vaccine, 39(29), 3926-3934. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.VACCINE.2021.05.068
Kariger, P., Frongillo, E. A., Engle, P., Britto, P. M. R., Sywulka, S. M., & Menon, P. (2012). Indicators of family care for development for use in multicountry surveys. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 30(4), 472. https://doi.org/10.3329/JHPN.V30I4.13417
Kea, P. (2013). ‘The complexity of an enduring relationship’: Gender, generation, and the moral economy of the Gambian Mandinka household. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 19(1), 102-119. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9655.12005
Lawson, G. M., & Farah, M. J. (2017). Executive function as a mediator between SES and academic achievement throughout childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(1), 94-104. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025415603489
Lawson, G. M., Hook, C. J., & Farah, M. J. (2018). A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children. Developmental Science, 21(2), e12529. https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12529
Legare, C. H., Dale, M. T., Kim, S. Y., & Deák, G. O. (2018). Cultural variation in cognitive flexibility reveals diversity in the development of executive functions. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-34756-2
Lloyd-Fox, S., McCann, S., Milosavljevic, B., Katus, L., Blasi, A., Bulgarelli, C., Crespo-Llado, M., Ghillia, G., Fadera, T., Mbye, E., Mason, L., Njai, F., Njie, O., Perapoch Amado, M., Rozhko, M., Sosseh, F., Saidykhan, M., Touray, E., Moore, S. E., … The BRIGHT Study Team. (n.d.). The Brain Imaging for Global Health (BRIGHT) Study: Cohort Study Protocol. Gates Open Research.
Makiwane, M., Gumede, N. A., Makoae, M., & Vawda, M. (2017). Family in a changing South Africa: Structures, functions and the welfare of members. South African Review of Sociology, 48(2), 49-69. https://doi.org/10.1080/21528586.2017.1288166
McCoy, D. C., Salhi, C., Yoshikawa, H., Black, M., Britto, P., & Fink, G. (2018). Home- and center-based learning opportunities for preschoolers in low- and middle-income countries. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 44-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHILDYOUTH.2018.02.021
McCoy, D. C., Zuilkowski, S. S., & Fink, G. (2015). Poverty, physical stature, and cognitive skills: Mechanisms underlying children's school enrollment in Zambia. Developmental Psychology, 51(5), 600-614. https://doi.org/10.1037/A0038924
McCoy, D. C., Zuilkowski, S. S., Yoshikawa, H., & Fink, G. (2017). Early childhood care and education and school readiness in Zambia. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(3), 482-506. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2016.1250850/SUPPL_FILE/UREE_A_1250850_SM1821.DOCX
McFarlane, C., Silver, J., & Truelove, Y. (2016). Cities within cities: Intra-urban comparison of infrastructure in Mumbai, Delhi and Cape Town. Urban Geography, 38(9), 1393-1417. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2016.1243386
Melhuish, E. C., Phan, M. B., Sylva, K., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2008). Effects of the home learning environment and preschool center experience upon literacy and numeracy development in early primary school. Journal of Social Issues, 64(1), 95-114. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1540-4560.2008.00550.X
Metaferia, B. K., Futo, J., & Takacs, Z. K. (2021). Parents’ views on play and the goal of early childhood education in relation to children's home activity and executive functions: A cross-cultural investigation. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3389/FPSYG.2021.646074
Miles, J. (2014). Tolerance and Variance Inflation Factor. Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118445112.STAT06593
Miller-Cotto, D., Smith, L. v., Wang, A. H., & Ribner, A. D. (2022). Changing the conversation: A culturally responsive perspective on executive functions, minoritized children and their families. Infant and Child Development, 31(1), e2286. https://doi.org/10.1002/ICD.2286
Mittal, C., Griskevicius, V., Simpson, J. A., Sung, S., & Young, E. S. (2015). Cognitive adaptations to stressful environments: When childhood adversity enhances adult executive function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(4), 604-621. https://doi.org/10.1037/PSPI0000028
Mlachila, M., & Moeletsi, T. (2019). Struggling to Make the Grade: A Review of the Causes and Consequences of the Weak Outcomes of South Africa's Education System.
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H. L., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(7), 2693-2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1010076108/SUPPL_FILE/SAPP.PDF
Morelli, G., Quinn, N., Chaudhary, N., Vicedo, M., Rosabal-Coto, M., Keller, H., Murray, M., Gottlieb, A., Scheidecker, G., & Takada, A. (2017). Ethical challenges of parenting interventions in low- to middle-income countries: Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(1), 5-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022117746241
Mousavi, S. Z., Farhadi, N., & Gharibzadeh, S. (2022). Socioeconomic status and childhood executive function: Differing conceptualizations, diverse assessments, and decontextualized investigations. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, 2022, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12124-022-09680-W
Murray, J., Santos, I. S., Bertoldi, A. D., Murray, L., Arteche, A., Tovo-Rodrigues, L., Cruz, S., Anselmi, L., Martins, R., Altafim, E., Soares, T. B., Andriotti, M. G., Gonzalez, A., Oliveira, I., da Silveira, M. F., & Cooper, P. (2019). The effects of two early parenting interventions on child aggression and risk for violence in Brazil (The PIÁ Trial): Protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials, 20(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/S13063-019-3356-X/TABLES/3
Nkosi, B., & Daniels, P. (2013). Family strengths: South Africa. Strong Families Around the World: Strengths-Based Research and Perspectives, 41(1-2), 11-26. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002V41N01_02
Nweze, T., Nwoke, M. B., Nwufo, J. I., Aniekwu, R. I., & Lange, F. (2021). Working for the future: Parentally deprived Nigerian children have enhanced working memory ability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 62(3), 280-288. https://doi.org/10.1111/JCPP.13241
Obradović, J., Finch, J. E., Portilla, X. A., Rasheed, M. A., Tirado-Strayer, N., & Yousafzai, A. K. (2019). Early executive functioning in a global context: Developmental continuity and family protective factors. Developmental Science, 22(5), e12795. https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12795
Obradović, J., Portilla, X. A., Tirado-Strayer, N., Siyal, S., Rasheed, M. A., & Yousafzai, A. K. (2017a). Maternal scaffolding in a disadvantaged global context: The influence of working memory and cognitive capacities. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(2), 139-149. https://doi.org/10.1037/FAM0000279
Obradović, J., Portilla, X. A., Tirado-Strayer, N., Siyal, S., Rasheed, M. A., & Yousafzai, A. K. (2017b). Maternal scaffolding in a disadvantaged global context: The influence of working memory and cognitive capacities. Journal of Family Psychology, 31(2), 139-149. https://doi.org/10.1037/FAM0000279
Obradović, J., & Willoughby, M. T. (2019). Studying executive function skills in young children in low- and middle-income countries: Progress and directions. Child Development Perspectives, 13(4), 227-234. https://doi.org/10.1111/CDEP.12349
Obradović, J., Yousafzai, A. K., Finch, J. E., & Rasheed, M. A. (2016a). Maternal scaffolding and home stimulation: Key mediators of early intervention effects on children's cognitive development. Developmental Psychology, 52(9), 1409-1421. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000182
Obradović, J., Yousafzai, A. K., Finch, J. E., & Rasheed, M. A. (2016b). Maternal scaffolding and home stimulation: Key mediators of early intervention effects on children's cognitive development. Developmental Psychology, 52(9), 1409. https://doi.org/10.1037/DEV0000182
O'Brien, R. M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality and Quantity, 41(5), 673-690. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11135-006-9018-6/METRICS
Perkins, J. M., Kim, R., Krishna, A., McGovern, M., Aguayo, V. M., & Subramanian, S. v. (2017). Understanding the association between stunting and child development in low- and middle-income countries: Next steps for research and intervention. Social Science & Medicine, 193, 101-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.09.039
Perumal, N., Manji, K. P., Darling, A. M., Kisenge, R. R., Kvestad, I., Hysing, M., Belinger, D. C., Urassa, W., Strand, T. A., Duggan, C. P., Fawzi, W. W., & Sudfeld, C. R. (2021). Gestational age, birth weight, and neurocognitive development in adolescents in Tanzania. The Journal of Pediatrics, 236, 194-203.e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPEDS.2021.04.036
Rao, N., Cohrssen, C., Sun, J., Su, Y., & Perlman, M. (2021). Early child development in low- and middle-income countries: Is it what mothers have or what they do that makes a difference to child outcomes? Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 61, 255-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/BS.ACDB.2021.04.002
Rathore, M. A., Armstrong-Carter, E., Siyal, S., Yousafzai, A. K., & Obradović, J. (2022). Pakistani preschoolers’ number of older siblings and cognitive skills: Moderations by home stimulation and gender. Journal of Family Psychology, 37(1), 132-142. https://doi.org/10.1037/FAM0001018
Rey-Guerra, C., Maldonado-Carreño, C., Ponguta, L. A., Nieto, A. M., & Yoshikawa, H. (2022). Family engagement in early learning opportunities at home and in early childhood education centers in Colombia. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 58, 35-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECRESQ.2021.08.002
Salvador-Cruz, J., & Becerra-Arcos, J. P. (2023). The relationship between executive functions and externalizing and internalizing behaviors in mexican preschoolers. Developmental Neuropsychology, 48(2), 81-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2023.2166939
Sánchez, A., Favara, M., Sheridan, M., & Behrman, J. R. (2023). How early nutrition and foundational cognitive skills interconnect? Evidence from two developing countries. SSRN Electronic Journal, 47. https://doi.org/10.2139/SSRN.4308497
Sear, R., & Mace, R. (2009). Family matters: Kin, demography and child health in a rural Gambian population. http://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/20991 DOI:UsageGuidelinesPleaserefertousageguidelinesath ttp://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/policies.htmloralterna-tivelycontactresearchonline@lshtm.ac.uk
Sooryamoorthy, R., & Makhoba, M. (2016). The family in modern South Africa: Insights from recent research. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 47(3), 309-321. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.47.3.309
Sosseh, S. A. L., Barrow, A., & Lu, Z. J. (2023). Cultural beliefs, attitudes and perceptions of lactating mothers on exclusive breastfeeding in The Gambia: An ethnographic study. BMC Women's Health, 23(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12905-023-02163-Z/TABLES/2
Suntheimer, N. M., Wolf, S., Sulik, M. J., Avornyo, E. A., & Obradović, J. (2022). Executive function mediates the association between cumulative risk and learning in Ghanaian schoolchildren. Developmental Psychology, 58(8), 1500-1511. https://doi.org/10.1037/DEV0001372
The Gambia Bureau of Statistics. (2011). The Gambia- multiple indicator cluster survey 2010. UNICEF.
The Jamovi Project. (2001). Jamovi (version 2.3.0). Retrieved from https://www.jamovi.org
Thompson, A., & Steinbeis, N. (2020). Sensitive periods in executive function development. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 36, 98-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COBEHA.2020.08.001
Toor, H. K., & Hanif, R. (2022). Executive function touch battery: Translation and preliminary measure validation for Pakistani preschoolers. PLOS ONE, 17(9), e0274431. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0274431
van der Merwe, L. F., Moore, S. E., Fulford, A. J., Halliday, K. E., Drammeh, S., Young, S., & Prentice, A. M. (2013). Long-chain PUFA supplementation in rural African infants: A randomized controlled trial of effects on gut integrity, growth, and cognitive development. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(April), 45-57. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.042267.1
Walker, S. P., Chang, S. M., Wright, A. S., Pinto, R., Heckman, J. J., & Grantham-McGregor, S. M. (2022). Cognitive, psychosocial, and behaviour gains at age 31 years from the Jamaica early childhood stimulation trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(6), 626-635. https://doi.org/10.1111/JCPP.13499
Weber, A. M., Diop, Y., Gillespie, D., Ratsifandrihamanana, L., & Darmstadt, G. L. (2021). Africa is not a museum: The ethics of encouraging new parenting practices in rural communities in low-income and middle-income countries. BMJ Global Health, 6(7), e006218. https://doi.org/10.1136/BMJGH-2021-006218
Willoughby, M. T., Wirth, R. J., & Blair, C. B. (2012). Executive function in early childhood: Longitudinal measurement invariance and developmental change. Psychological Assessment, 24(2), 418-431. https://doi.org/10.1037/A0025779
Willoughby, M. T., Piper, B., Oyanga, A., & Merseth King, K. (2019). Measuring executive function skills in young children in Kenya: Associations with school readiness. Developmental Science, 22(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12818
Wills, G., & Kika-Mistry, J. (2021). Early Childhood Development in South Africa during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from NIDS-CRAM Waves 2-5.
Woldehanna, T. (2012). The effects of early childhood education attendance on cognitive cevelopment: Evidence from urban Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Economics, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.4314/eje.v20i1
Wolf, S., & McCoy, D. C. (2019a). Household socioeconomic status and parental investments: Direct and indirect relations with school readiness in Ghana. Child Development, 90(1), 260-278. https://doi.org/10.1111/CDEV.12899
Wolf, S., & McCoy, D. C. (2019b). The role of executive function and social-emotional skills in the development of literacy and numeracy during preschool: A cross-lagged longitudinal study. Developmental Science, 22(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/DESC.12800
World Bank. (2020). School enrollment, primary (% gross) - South Africa | Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRR?locations=ZA
Young, E. S., Griskevicius, V., Simpson, J. A., Waters, T. E. A., & Mittal, C. (2018). Can an unpredictable childhood environment enhance working memory? Testing the sensitized-specialization hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(6), 891-908. https://doi.org/10.1037/PSPI0000124
Yuan, H., Ocansey, M., Adu-Afarwuah, S., Sheridan, M., Hamoudi, A., Okronipa, H., Kumordzie, S. M., Oaks, B. M., Prado, E., & Behav, B. (2022). Evaluation of a tablet-based assessment tool for measuring cognition among children 4-6 years of age in Ghana. Brain and Behavior, e2749. https://doi.org/10.1002/BRB3.2749