A temperate Earth-sized planet with tidal heating transiting an M6 star.

Journal

Nature

ISSN: 1476-4687

Titre abrégé: Nature

Pays: England

ID NLM: 0410462

Informations de publication

Date de publication:
May 2023

Historique:

received: 08 05 2021

accepted: 08 03 2023

medline: 26 5 2023

pubmed: 18 5 2023

entrez: 17 5 2023

Statut: ppublish

Résumé

Temperate Earth-sized exoplanets around late-M dwarfs offer a rare opportunity to explore under which conditions planets can develop hospitable climate conditions. The small stellar radius amplifies the atmospheric transit signature, making even compact secondary atmospheres dominated by N

Identifiants

DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-05934-8 PMID: 37198481

pubmed: 37198481

doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-05934-8

pii: 10.1038/s41586-023-05934-8

doi:

Types de publication

Journal Article

Langues

eng

Sous-ensembles de citation

Pagination

701-705

Informations de copyright

Références

Gillon, M. et al. The TRAPPIST-1 JWST Community Initiative. Bull. AAS https://doi.org/10.3847/25c2cfeb.afbf0205 (2020).

Gillon, M. Searching for red worlds. Nat. Astron. 2, 344–344 (2018).

doi: 10.1038/s41550-018-0443-y

Agol, E. et al. Refining the transit-timing and photometric analysis of TRAPPIST-1: masses, radii, densities, dynamics, and ephemerides. Planet. Sci. J. 2, 1 (2021).

doi: 10.3847/PSJ/abd022

Crossfield, I. J. M. et al. A super-Earth and sub-Neptune transiting the late-type M dwarf LP 791-18. Astrophys. J. 883, L16 (2019).

doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ab3d30

Spencer, J. R. et al. Io’s thermal emission from the Galileo photopolarimeter-radiometer. Science 288, 1198–1201 (2000).

pubmed: 10817987 doi: 10.1126/science.288.5469.1198

Veeder, G. J., Matson, D. L., Johnson, T. V., Davies, A. G. & Blaney, D. L. The polar contribution to the heat flow of Io. Icarus 169, 264–270 (2004).

doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2003.11.016

Deck, K. M., Agol, E., Holman, M. J. & Nesvorný, D. TTVFast: an efficient and accurate code for transit timing inversion problems. Astrophys. J. 787, 132 (2014).

doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/787/2/132

Foreman-Mackey, D., Hogg, D. W., Lang, D. & Goodman, J. Emcee: the MCMC hammer. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 125, 306–312 (2013).

doi: 10.1086/670067

Lopez, E. D. & Fortney, J. J. Understanding the mass-radius relation for sub-Neptunes: radius as a proxy for composition. Astrophys. J. 792, 1 (2014).

doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/792/1/1

Aguichine, A., Mousis, O., Deleuil, M. & Marcq, E. Mass–radius relationships for irradiated ocean planets. Astrophys. J. 914, 84 (2021).

doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abfa99

Fulton, B. J. & Petigura, E. A. The California-Kepler survey. VII. Precise planet radii leveraging Gaia DR2 reveal the stellar mass dependence of the planet radius gap. Astron. J 156, 264 (2018).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/aae828

Cloutier, R. & Menou, K. Evolution of the radius valley around low-mass stars from Kepler and K2. Astron. J 159, 211 (2020).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ab8237

Lee, E. J. & Connors, N. J. Primordial radius gap and potentially broad core mass distributions of super-earths and sub-Neptunes. Astrophys. J. 908, 32 (2021).

doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/abd6c7

Owen, J. E. & Wu, Y. The evaporation valley in the Kepler planets. Astrophys. J. 847, 29 (2017).

doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa890a

Gupta, A. & Schlichting, H. E. Sculpting the valley in the radius distribution of small exoplanets as a by-product of planet formation: the core-powered mass-loss mechanism. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 487, 24–33 (2019).

pubmed: 31534280 pmcid: 6750033 doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz1230

Owen, J. E. & Campos Estrada, B. Testing exoplanet evaporation with multitransiting systems. Mon. Not. R. Astron.Soc. 491, 5287–5297 (2020).

Cloutier, R. et al. A pair of TESS planets spanning the radius valley around the nearby mid-M dwarf LTT 3780. Astron. J. 160, 3 (2020).

Kite, E. S. & Schaefer, L. Water on hot rocky exoplanets. Astrophys. J. 909, L22 (2021).

doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/abe7dc

Bower, D. J., Hakim, K., Sossi, P. A. & Sanan, P. Retention of water in terrestrial magma oceans and carbon-rich early atmospheres. Planet. Sci. J. 3, 93 (2022).

doi: 10.3847/PSJ/ac5fb1

Kopparapu, R. K. in Handbook of Exoplanets (eds Deeg, H. J. & Belmonte, J. A.) 2981–2993 (Springer International Publishing, 2018).

Turbet, M. et al. Day–night cloud asymmetry prevents early oceans on Venus but not on Earth. Nature 598, 276–280 (2021).

pubmed: 34645997 doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03873-w

Leconte, J. et al. 3D climate modeling of close-in land planets: circulation patterns, climate moist bistability, and habitability. Astron. Astrophys. 554, A69 (2013).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201321042

Wordsworth, R. D. Atmospheric nitrogen evolution on Earth and Venus. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 447, 103–111 (2016).

doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2016.04.002

Davies, J. H. & Davies, D. R. Earth’s surface heat flux. Solid Earth 1, 5–24 (2010).

doi: 10.5194/se-1-5-2010

Veeder, G. J. et al. Io: volcanic thermal sources and global heat flow. Icarus 219, 701–722 (2012).

doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2012.04.004

Kempton, E. M.-R. et al. A framework for prioritizing the TESS planetary candidates most amenable to atmospheric characterization. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 130, 114401 (2018).

doi: 10.1088/1538-3873/aadf6f

Deming, D. et al. Discovery and characterization of transiting super earths using an all-sky transit survey and follow-up by the James Webb Space Telescope. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 121, 952–967 (2009).

doi: 10.1086/605913

Greene, T. P. et al. Characterizing transiting exoplanet atmospheres with JWST. ApJ 817, 17 (2016).

doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/817/1/17

Matsuo, T. et al. Photometric precision of a Si:As impurity band conduction mid-infrared detector and application to transit spectroscopy. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 131, 124502 (2019).

doi: 10.1088/1538-3873/ab42f1

Benneke, B. et al. Water vapor and clouds on the habitable-zone sub-Neptune exoplanet K2-18b. Astrophys. J. Lett. 887, L14 (2019).

doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ab59dc

Stassun, K. G. et al. The revised TESS input catalog and candidate target list. Astron. J. 158, 138 (2019).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ab3467

Filippazzo, J. C. et al. Fundamental parameters and spectral energy distributions of young and field age objects with masses spanning the stellar to planetary regime. Astrophys. J. 810, 158 (2015).

doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/810/2/158

Demory, B.-O. et al. Mass-radius relation of low and very low-mass stars revisited with the VLTI. Astron. Astrophys. 505, 205–215 (2009).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200911976

Brown, T. M. et al. Las Cumbres observatory global telescope network. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 125, 1031 (2013).

doi: 10.1086/673168

Nutzman, P. & Charbonneau, D. Design considerations for a ground-based transit search for habitable planets orbiting m dwarfs. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 120, 317–327 (2008).

doi: 10.1086/533420

Gillon, M. et al. The TRAPPIST survey of southern transiting planets—I. Thirty eclipses of the ultra-short period planet WASP-43 b. Astron. Astrophys. 542, A4 (2012).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201218817

Bonfils, X. et al. in Techniques and Instrumentation for Detection of Exoplanets VII Vol. 9605 96051L (International Society for Optics; Photonics, 2015).

Narita, N. et al. MuSCAT: a multicolor simultaneous camera for studying atmospheres of transiting exoplanets. J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 1, 045001 (2015).

doi: 10.1117/1.JATIS.1.4.045001

Narita, N. et al. MuSCAT2: four-color simultaneous camera for the 1.52-m Telescopio Carlos Sánchez. J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 5, 015001 (2018).

Murray, C. A. et al. Photometry and performance of SPECULOOS-South. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 495, 2446–2457 (2020).

doi: 10.1093/mnras/staa1283

Gibbs, A. et al. EDEN: sensitivity analysis and transiting planet detection limits for nearby late red dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 159, 169 (2020).

Benneke, B. et al. Spitzer observations confirm and rescue the habitable-zone super-earth K2-18b for future characterization. Astrophys. J. 834, 187 (2017).

doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/187

Deming, D. et al. Spitzer secondary eclipses of the dense, modestly-irradiated, giant exoplanet HAT-P-20b using pixel-level decorrelation. Astrophys. J. 805, 132 (2015).

doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/805/2/132

Benneke, B. et al. A sub-Neptune exoplanet with a low-metallicity methane-depleted atmosphere and Mie-scattering clouds. Nat. Astron. 3, 813–821 (2019).

doi: 10.1038/s41550-019-0800-5

Kreidberg, L. Batman: basic transit model calculation in Python. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 127, 1161 (2015).

doi: 10.1086/683602

Stumpe, M. C. et al. Kepler presearch data conditioning I—architecture and algorithms for error correction in Kepler light curves. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 124, 985 (2012).

doi: 10.1086/667698

Smith, J. C. et al. Kepler presearch data conditioning II—a Bayesian approach to systematic error correction. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 124, 1000 (2012).

doi: 10.1086/667697

Stumpe, M. C. et al. Multiscale systematic error correction via wavelet-based bandsplitting in Kepler data. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 126, 100–114 (2014).

doi: 10.1086/674989

Jenkins, J. M. et al. in Software and Cyberinfrastructure for Astronomy IV Vol. 9913 (eds Chiozzi, G. & Guzman, J. C.) 1232–1251 (International Society for Optics; Photonics; SPIE, 2016).

Collins, K. A., Kielkopf, J. F., Stassun, K. G. & Hessman, F. V. ASTROIMAGEJ: image processing and photometric extraction for ultra-precise astronomical light curves. Astron. J. 153, 77 (2017).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/153/2/77

Parviainen, H. & Aigrain, S. Ldtk: limb darkening toolkit. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 453, 3821–3826 (2015).

doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv1857

Espinoza, N., Kossakowski, D. & Brahm, R. Juliet: a versatile modelling tool for transiting and non-transiting exoplanetary systems. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 490, 2262–2283 (2019).

doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz2688

Gillon, M. et al. The TRAPPIST survey of southern transiting planets. I. Thirty eclipses of the ultra-short period planet WASP-43 b. Astron. Astrophys. 542, A4 (2012).

Goodman, J. & Weare, J. Ensemble samplers with affine invariance. Commun. Appl. Math. Comput. Sci. 5, 65–80 (2010).

doi: 10.2140/camcos.2010.5.65

Eastman, J., Gaudi, B. S. & Agol, E. EXOFAST: a fast exoplanetary fitting suite in IDL. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 125, 83–112 (2013).

doi: 10.1086/669497

Lithwick, Y., Xie, J. & Wu, Y. Extracting planet mass and eccentricity from TTV data. Astrophys. J. 761, 122 (2012).

doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/761/2/122

Rein, H. & Liu, S.-F. REBOUND: an open-source multi-purpose N-body code for collisional dynamics. Astron. Astrophys. 537, A128 (2012).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201118085

Rein, H. & Tamayo, D. WHFAST: a fast and unbiased implementation of a symplectic Wisdom-Holman integrator for long-term gravitational simulations. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 452, 376–388 (2015).

doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv1257

Jontof-Hutter, D. et al. Secure mass measurements from transit timing: 10 Kepler exoplanets between 3 and 8 M

doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/820/1/39

Tamayo, D., Rein, H., Shi, P. & Hernandez, D. M. REBOUNDx: a library for adding conservative and dissipative forces to otherwise symplectic N-body integrations. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 491, 2885–2901 (2020).

doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz2870

Clausen, N. & Tilgner, A. Dissipation in rocky planets for strong tidal forcing. Astron. Astrophys. 584, A60 (2015).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201526082

Murray, C. D. & Dermott, S. F. Solar System Dynamics (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000).

Piaulet, C. et al. WASP-107b’s density is even lower: a case study for the physics of planetary gas envelope accretion and orbital migration. Astron. J 161, 70 (2021).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/abcd3c

Tian, F. Atmospheric escape from solar system terrestrial planets and exoplanets. Ann. Rev. Earth Planetary Sci. 43, 459–476 (2015).

doi: 10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-054834

Liang, M.-C., Parkinson, C. D., Lee, A. Y.-T., Yung, Y. L. & Seager, S. Source of atomic hydrogen in the atmosphere of HD 209458b. Astrophys. J. Lett. 596, L247–L250 (2003).

doi: 10.1086/379314

Lecavelier des Etangs, A., Vidal-Madjar, A., McConnell, J. C. & Hébrard, G. Atmospheric escape from hot Jupiters. Astron. Astrophys. 418, L1–L4 (2004).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20040106

Tian, F., Toon, O. B., Pavlov, A. A. & De Sterck, H. Transonic hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen from extrasolar planetary atmospheres. Astrophys. J. 621, 1049–1060 (2005).

doi: 10.1086/427204

Feinstein, A. D. et al. Flare statistics for young stars from a convolutional neural network analysis of TESS data. Astron. J 160, 219 (2020).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/abac0a

Piaulet, C. et al. Evidence for the volatile-rich composition of a 1.5-Earth-radius planet. Nat. Astron. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-022-01835-4 (2022).

Ribas, I., Guinan, E. F., Güdel, M. & Audard, M. Evolution of the solar activity over time and effects on planetary atmospheres. I. High-energy irradiances (1-1700 å). Astrophys. J. 622, 680–694 (2005).

doi: 10.1086/427977

Jackson, A. P., Davis, T. A. & Wheatley, P. J. The coronal X-ray-age relation and its implications for the evaporation of exoplanets. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 422, 2024–2043 (2012).

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.20657.x

Tu, L., Johnstone, C. P., Güdel, M. & Lammer, H. The extreme ultraviolet and X-ray Sun in time: high-energy evolutionary tracks of a solar-like star. Astron. Astrophys. 577, L3 (2015).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201526146

Güdel, M., Guinan, E. F. & Skinner, S. L. The X-ray sun in time: a study of the long-term evolution of coronae of solar-type stars. Astrophys. J. 483, 947–960 (1997).

doi: 10.1086/304264

Owen, J. E. & Jackson, A. P. Planetary evaporation by UV & X-ray radiation: basic hydrodynamics. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 425, 2931–2947 (2012).

doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21481.x

Owen, J. E. & Campos Estrada, B. Testing exoplanet evaporation with multitransiting systems. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 491, 5287–5297 (2020).

doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz3435

Ginzburg, S., Schlichting, H. E. & Sari, R. Core-powered mass-loss and the radius distribution of small exoplanets. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 476, 759–765 (2018).

doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty290

Piro, A. L. Exoplanets torqued by the combined tides of a moon and parent star. Astron. J 156, 54 (2018).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/aaca38

Piro, A. L. & Vissapragada, S. Exploring whether super-puffs can be explained as ringed exoplanets. Astron. J 159, 131 (2020).

doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/ab7192

Ribas, I. et al. The habitability of Proxima Centauri b—I. Irradiation, rotation and volatile inventory from formation to the present. Astron. Astrophys. 596, A111 (2016).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629576

Leconte, J., Wu, H., Menou, K. & Murray, N. Asynchronous rotation of Earth-mass planets in the habitable zone of lower-mass stars. Science 347, 632–635 (2015).

pubmed: 25592420 doi: 10.1126/science.1258686

Fischer, H.-J. & Spohn, T. Thermal-orbital histories of viscoelastic models of Io (J1). Icarus 83, 39–65 (1990).

doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(90)90005-T

Moore, W. B. Tidal heating and convection in Io. J. Geophys. Res. 108, 5096 (2003).

doi: 10.1029/2002JE001943

Henning, W. G., O’Connell, R. J. & Sasselov, D. D. Tidally heated terrestrial exoplanets: viscoelastic response models. Astrophys. J. 707, 1000–1015 (2009).

doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/1000

Dobos, V. & Turner, E. L. Viscoelastic models of tidally heated exomoons. Astrophys. J. 804, 41 (2015).

doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/804/1/41

Barr, A. C., Dobos, V. & Kiss, L. L. Interior structures and tidal heating in the TRAPPIST-1 planets. Astron. Astrophys. 613, A37 (2018).

doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201731992

Segatz, M., Spohn, T., Ross, M. N. & Schubert, G. Tidal dissipation, surface heat flow, and figure of viscoelastic models of Io. Icarus 75, 187–206 (1988).

doi: 10.1016/0019-1035(88)90001-2

Solomatov, V. S. & Moresi, L.-N. Scaling of time-dependent stagnant lid convection: application to small-scale convection on Earth and other terrestrial planets. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 21795–21818 (2000).

doi: 10.1029/2000JB900197

Barr, A. C. Mobile lid convection beneath Enceladus’ south polar terrain. J. Geophys. Res. 113, E07009 (2008).

Renner, J., Evans, B. & Hirth, G. On the rheologically critical melt fraction. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 181, 585–594 (2000).

doi: 10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00222-3

Yang, J., Liu, Y., Hu, Y. & Abbot, D. S. Water trapping on tidally locked terrestrial planets requires special conditions. Astrophys. J. 796, L22 (2014).

doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/796/2/L22

Zeng, L., Sasselov, D. D. & Jacobsen, S. B. Mass–radius relation for rocky planets based on PREM. Astrophys. J. 819, 127 (2016).

doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/819/2/127