Epidemiology of Hepatitis E.
Anti-HEV IgG
Genotype
Hepatitis E virus
Outbreak
Prevalence
Reservoir
Journal
Advances in experimental medicine and biology
ISSN: 0065-2598
Titre abrégé: Adv Exp Med Biol
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 0121103
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
2023
2023
Historique:
medline:
26
5
2023
pubmed:
24
5
2023
entrez:
24
5
2023
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is globally prevalent with relatively high percentages of anti-HEV immunoglobulin G-positive individuals in the populations of developing and developed countries. There are two distinct epidemiological patterns of hepatitis E. In areas with high disease endemicity, primarily developing countries in Asia and Africa, this disease is caused mainly by genotypes HEV-1 or HEV-2; both genotypes transmit predominantly through contaminated water and occur as either outbreaks or sporadic cases of acute hepatitis. The acute hepatitis has the highest attack rate in young adults and is particularly severe among pregnant women. In developed countries, sporadic cases of locally acquired HEV-3 or HEV-4 infection are observed. The reservoir of HEV-3 and HEV-4 is believed to be animals, such as pigs, with zoonotic transmission to humans. The affected persons are often elderly, and persistent infection has been well documented among immunosuppressed persons. A subunit vaccine has been shown to be effective in preventing clinical disease and has been licensed in China.
Identifiants
pubmed: 37223857
doi: 10.1007/978-981-99-1304-6_3
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
33-48Informations de copyright
© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
Références
WHO. http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-e
Aggarwal R (2013) Hepatitis E: epidemiology and natural history. J Clin Exp Hepatol 3(2):125–133
pubmed: 25755486
pmcid: 3940526
doi: 10.1016/j.jceh.2013.05.010
Raji YE, Toung OP, Taib NM, Sekawi ZB (2022) Hepatitis E virus: an emerging enigmatic and underestimated pathogen. Saudi J Biol Sci 29(1):499–512
pubmed: 35002446
doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.09.003
Marano G, Vaglio S, Pupella S, Facco G, Bianchi M, Calizzani G et al (2015) Hepatitis E: an old infection with new implications. Blood Transfus 13(1):6–17
pubmed: 25369613
pmcid: 4317085
Takahashi M, Tamura K, Hoshino Y, Nagashima S, Yazaki Y, Mizuo H et al (2010) A nationwide survey of hepatitis E virus infection in the general population of Japan. J Med Virol 82(2):271–281
pubmed: 20029817
doi: 10.1002/jmv.21678
Lapa D, Capobianchi MR, Garbuglia AR (2015) Epidemiology of hepatitis E virus in European countries. Int J Mol Sci 16(10):25711–25743
pubmed: 26516843
pmcid: 4632823
doi: 10.3390/ijms161025711
Echevarría JM (2014) Light and darkness: prevalence of hepatitis E virus infection among the general population. Scientifica (Cairo) 2014:481016
pubmed: 24672733
Li P, Liu J, Li Y, Su J, Ma Z, Bramer WM et al (2020) The global epidemiology of hepatitis E virus infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Int 40(7):1516–1528
pubmed: 32281721
pmcid: 7384095
doi: 10.1111/liv.14468
Caron M, Kazanji M (2008) Hepatitis E virus is highly prevalent among pregnant women in Gabon, central Africa, with different patterns between rural and urban areas. Virol J 5:158
pubmed: 19102767
pmcid: 2628354
doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-5-158
Azman AS, Paul KK, Bhuiyan TR, Koyuncu A, Salje H, Qadri F et al (2021) Hepatitis E in Bangladesh: insights from a national serosurvey. J Infect Dis 224(12 suppl 2):S805–s812
pubmed: 34549775
pmcid: 8687073
doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiab446
Kadri SM, Rehman SU, Rehana K, Benetou DR, Ahmad DF, Abdullah A et al (2018) Hepatitis A and E outbreak surveillance during 2015-2017 in Kashmir, India: is the water to blame? J Epidemiol Glob Health 8(3–4):203–207
pubmed: 30864764
pmcid: 7377564
doi: 10.2991/j.jegh.2018.04.101
Abebe M, Ali I, Ayele S, Overbo J, Aseffa A, Mihret A (2017) Seroprevalence and risk factors of Hepatitis E Virus infection among pregnant women in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PLoS One 12(6):e0180078
pubmed: 28650982
pmcid: 5484499
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180078
Dagnew M, Belachew A, Tiruneh M, Moges F (2019) Hepatitis E virus infection among pregnant women in Africa: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis 19(1):519
pubmed: 31195988
pmcid: 6567642
doi: 10.1186/s12879-019-4125-x
Adjei AA, Tettey Y, Aviyase JT, Adu-Gyamfi C, Obed S, Mingle JA et al (2009) Hepatitis E virus infection is highly prevalent among pregnant women in Accra, Ghana. Virol J 6:108
pubmed: 19619291
pmcid: 2717077
doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-6-108
Meldal BH, Sarkodie F, Owusu-Ofori S, Allain JP (2013) Hepatitis E virus infection in Ghanaian blood donors - the importance of immunoassay selection and confirmation. Vox Sang 104(1):30–36
pubmed: 22845878
doi: 10.1111/j.1423-0410.2012.01637.x
Richard-Lenoble D, Traore O, Kombila M, Roingeard P, Dubois F, Goudeau A (1995) Hepatitis B, C, D, and E markers in rural equatorial African villages (Gabon). Am J Trop Med Hyg 53(4):338–341
pubmed: 7485684
doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1995.53.338
Khuroo MS (2021) Hepatitis E and pregnancy: an unholy alliance unmasked from Kashmir, India. Viruses 13(7):1329
pubmed: 34372535
pmcid: 8310059
doi: 10.3390/v13071329
Gu G, Huang H, Zhang L, Bi Y, Hu Y, Zhou YH (2015) Hepatitis E virus seroprevalence in pregnant women in Jiangsu, China, and postpartum evolution during six years. BMC Infect Dis 15:560
pubmed: 26653888
pmcid: 4675061
doi: 10.1186/s12879-015-1308-y
Cong W, Sui JC, Zhang XY, Qian AD, Chen J, Zhu XQ (2015) Seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus among pregnant women and control subjects in China. J Med Virol 87(3):446–450
pubmed: 25164987
doi: 10.1002/jmv.24058
Ma XX, Ji Y, Jin L, Baloch Z, Zhang DR, Wang Y et al (2021) Prevalence and clinical features of hepatitis E virus infection in pregnant women: a large cohort study in Inner Mongolia, China. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 45(4):101536
pubmed: 33051171
doi: 10.1016/j.clinre.2020.08.012
De Schryver A, De Schrijver K, François G, Hambach R, van Sprundel M, Tabibi R et al (2015) Hepatitis E virus infection: an emerging occupational risk? Occup Med (Lond) 65(8):667–672
pubmed: 26452392
doi: 10.1093/occmed/kqv154
Mrzljak A, Balen I, Barbic L, Ilic M, Vilibic-Cavlek T (2021) Hepatitis E virus in professionally exposed: a reason for concern? World J Hepatol 13(7):723–730
pubmed: 34367494
pmcid: 8326162
doi: 10.4254/wjh.v13.i7.723
Alvarado-Esquivel C, Sanchez-Anguiano LF, Hernandez-Tinoco J (2014) Seroepidemiology of hepatitis e virus infection in general population in rural Durango, Mexico. Hepat Mon 14(6):e16876
pubmed: 24976837
pmcid: 4071353
van Gageldonk-Lafeber AB, van der Hoek W, Borlée F, Heederik DJ, Mooi SH, Maassen CB et al (2017) Hepatitis E virus seroprevalence among the general population in a livestock-dense area in the Netherlands: a cross-sectional population-based serological survey. BMC Infect Dis 17(1):21
pmcid: 5217153
doi: 10.1186/s12879-016-2160-4
Mahrt H, Schemmerer M, Behrens G, Leitzmann M, Jilg W, Wenzel JJ (2018) Continuous decline of hepatitis E virus seroprevalence in southern Germany despite increasing notifications, 2003-2015. Emerg Microbes Infect 7(1):133
pmcid: 6057927
doi: 10.1038/s41426-018-0136-8
Nouhin J, Madec Y, Prak S, Ork M, Kerleguer A, Froehlich Y et al (2018) Declining hepatitis E virus antibody prevalence in Phnom Penh, Cambodia during 1996-2017. Epidemiol Infect 147:e26
pubmed: 30309396
pmcid: 6518538
doi: 10.1017/S0950268818002790
O’Keefe J, Tracy L, Yuen L, Bonanzinga S, Li X, Chong B et al (2021) Autochthonous and travel acquired hepatitis E virus in Australia. Front Microbiol 12:640325
pubmed: 33633719
pmcid: 7901960
doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.640325
Purdy MA, Drexler JF, Meng XJ, Meng XJ, Norder H, Okamoto H, Van der Poel WHM et al (2022) ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Hepeviridae 2022. J Gen Virol 103(9). https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.001778
Smith DB, Izopet J, Nicot F, Simmonds P, Jameel S, Meng XJ et al (2020) Update: proposed reference sequences for subtypes of hepatitis E virus (species Orthohepevirus A). J Gen Virol 101(7):692–698
pubmed: 32469300
pmcid: 7660235
doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.001435
Lee GH, Tan BH, Teo EC, Lim SG, Dan YY, Wee A et al (2016) Chronic infection with camelid hepatitis E virus in a liver transplant recipient who regularly consumes camel meat and milk. Gastroenterology 150(2):355–357.e353
pubmed: 26551551
doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.10.048
Aggarwal R, Goel A (2021) Hepatitis E: current status in India. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 18(3):168–172
pubmed: 34691406
doi: 10.1002/cld.1146
Gupta N, Sarangi AN, Dadhich S, Dixit VK, Chetri K, Goel A et al (2018) Acute hepatitis E in India appears to be caused exclusively by genotype 1 hepatitis E virus. Indian J Gastroenterol 37(1):44–49
pubmed: 29399748
doi: 10.1007/s12664-018-0819-z
Begum N, Polipalli SK, Husain SA, Kar P (2010) Molecular analysis of swine hepatitis E virus from north India. Indian J Med Res 132(5):504–508
pubmed: 21149998
pmcid: 3028948
Liu P, Li L, Wang L, Bu Q, Fu H, Han J et al (2012) Phylogenetic analysis of 626 hepatitis E virus (HEV) isolates from humans and animals in China (1986-2011) showing genotype diversity and zoonotic transmission. Infect Genet Evol 12(2):428–434
pubmed: 22306814
doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.01.017
Kanayama A, Arima Y, Yamagishi T, Kinoshita H, Sunagawa T, Yahata Y et al (2015) Epidemiology of domestically acquired hepatitis E virus infection in Japan: assessment of the nationally reported surveillance data, 2007-2013. J Med Microbiol 64(7):752–758
pubmed: 25976003
doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.000084
Jeong SH (2011) Current status of hepatitis E virus infection in Korea. Gut Liver 5(4):427–431
pubmed: 22195239
pmcid: 3240784
doi: 10.5009/gnl.2011.5.4.427
Tan LT, Tan J, Ang LW, Chan KP, Chiew KT, Cutter J et al (2013) Epidemiology of acute hepatitis E in Singapore. J Infect 66(5):453–459
pubmed: 23286967
doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2012.11.015
Albetkova A, Drobeniuc J, Yashina T, Musabaev E, Robertson B, Nainan O et al (2007) Characterization of hepatitis E virus from outbreak and sporadic cases in Turkmenistan. J Med Virol 79(11):1696–1702
pubmed: 17854031
doi: 10.1002/jmv.20991
Lu L, Drobeniuc J, Kobylnikov N, Usmanov RK, Robertson BH, Favorov MO et al (2004) Complete sequence of a Kyrgyzstan swine hepatitis E virus (HEV) isolated from a piglet thought to be experimentally infected with human HEV. J Med Virol 74(4):556–562
pubmed: 15484284
doi: 10.1002/jmv.20214
Escribà JM, Nakoune E, Recio C, Massamba PM, Matsika-Claquin MD, Goumba C et al (2008) Hepatitis E, Central African Republic. Emerg Infect Dis 14(4):681–683
pubmed: 18394300
pmcid: 2570933
doi: 10.3201/eid1404.070833
Elduma AH, Zein MM, Karlsson M, Elkhidir IM, Norder H (2016) A single lineage of hepatitis E virus causes both outbreaks and sporadic hepatitis in Sudan. Viruses 8(10):273
pubmed: 27782061
pmcid: 5086609
doi: 10.3390/v8100273
Nicand E, Armstrong GL, Enouf V, Guthmann JP, Guerin JP, Caron M et al (2005) Genetic heterogeneity of hepatitis E virus in Darfur, Sudan, and neighboring Chad. J Med Virol 77(4):519–521
pubmed: 16254969
doi: 10.1002/jmv.20487
van Cuyck H, Juge F, Roques P (2003) Phylogenetic analysis of the first complete hepatitis E virus (HEV) genome from Africa. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 39(2):133–139
pubmed: 14625096
doi: 10.1016/S0928-8244(03)00241-4
Blackard JT, Rouster SD, Nady S, Galal G, Marzuuk N, Rafaat MM et al (2009) Genotypic characterization of symptomatic hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections in Egypt. J Clin Virol 46(2):140–144
pubmed: 19651539
pmcid: 2753377
doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2009.07.007
Delarocque-Astagneau E, Abravanel F, Moshen A, Le Fouler L, Gad RR, El-Daly M et al (2012) Epidemiological and virological characteristics of symptomatic acute hepatitis E in Greater Cairo, Egypt. Clin Microbiol Infect 18(10):982–988
pubmed: 22264267
doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03727.x
He J, Binn LN, Tsarev SA, Hayes CG, Frean JA, Isaacson M et al (2000) Molecular characterization of a hepatitis E virus isolate from Namibia. J Biomed Sci 7(4):334–338
pubmed: 10895057
doi: 10.1007/BF02253253
Buisson Y, Grandadam M, Nicand E, Cheval P, van Cuyck-Gandre H, Innis B et al (2000) Identification of a novel hepatitis E virus in Nigeria. J Gen Virol 81(pt 4):903–909
pubmed: 10725415
doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-81-4-903
Wang B, Akanbi OA, Harms D, Adesina O, Osundare FA, Naidoo D et al (2018) A new hepatitis E virus genotype 2 strain identified from an outbreak in Nigeria, 2017. Virol J 15(1):163
pubmed: 30352598
pmcid: 6199738
doi: 10.1186/s12985-018-1082-8
Maila HT, Bowyer SM, Swanepoel R (2004) Identification of a new strain of hepatitis E virus from an outbreak in Namibia in 1995. J Gen Virol 85(pt 1):89–95
pubmed: 14718623
doi: 10.1099/vir.0.19587-0
Kamel AH, Ali MA, El-Nady HG, Deraz A, Aho S, Pothier P et al (2011) Presence of enteric hepatitis viruses in the sewage and population of Greater Cairo. Clin Microbiol Infect 17(8):1182–1185
pubmed: 21375654
doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03461.x
Epelboin L, Nicand E, Roussin C, Lernout T, Pettinelli ME, Tesse S et al (2011) A sporadic case of genotype 3f acute hepatitis E in Mayotte. Med Mal Infect 41(7):392–394
pubmed: 21493025
doi: 10.1016/j.medmal.2011.02.013
Modiyinji AF, Bigna JJ, Kenmoe S, Simo FBN, Amougou MA, Ndangang MS et al (2021) Epidemiology of hepatitis E virus infection in animals in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Vet Res 17(1):50
pubmed: 33494758
pmcid: 7831161
doi: 10.1186/s12917-021-02749-5
Rasche A, Saqib M, Liljander AM, Bornstein S, Zohaib A, Renneker S et al (2016) Hepatitis E virus infection in Dromedaries, North and East Africa, United Arab Emirates, and Pakistan, 1983-2015. Emerg Infect Dis 22(7):1249–1252
pubmed: 27315454
pmcid: 4918144
doi: 10.3201/eid2207.160168
El-Mokhtar MA, Elkhawaga AA, Sayed IM (2020) Assessment of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in the edible goat products pointed out a risk for human infection in Upper Egypt. Int J Food Microbiol 330:108784
pubmed: 32659521
doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108784
Sayed IM, Elkhawaga AA, El-Mokhtar MA (2020) Circulation of hepatitis E virus (HEV) and/or HEV-like agent in non-mixed dairy farms could represent a potential source of infection for Egyptian people. Int J Food Microbiol 317:108479
pubmed: 31874303
doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108479
Kwo PY, Schlauder GG, Carpenter HA, Murphy PJ, Rosenblatt JE, Dawson GJ et al (1997) Acute hepatitis E by a new isolate acquired in the United States. Mayo Clin Proc 72(12):1133–1136
pubmed: 9413292
doi: 10.4065/72.12.1133
Schlauder GG, Dawson GJ, Erker JC, Kwo PY, Knigge MF, Smalley DL et al (1998) The sequence and phylogenetic analysis of a novel hepatitis E virus isolated from a patient with acute hepatitis reported in the United States. J Gen Virol 79(Pt 3):447–456
pubmed: 9519822
doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-79-3-447
Drobeniuc J, Greene-Montfort T, Le NT, Mixson-Hayden TR, Ganova-Raeva L, Dong C et al (2013) Laboratory-based surveillance for hepatitis E virus infection, United States, 2005-2012. Emerg Infect Dis 19(2):218–222; quiz 353
pubmed: 23347695
pmcid: 3563276
doi: 10.3201/eid1902.120961
Tohme RA, Drobeniuc J, Sanchez R, Heseltine G, Alsip B, Kamili S et al (2011) Acute hepatitis associated with autochthonous hepatitis E virus infection--San Antonio, Texas, 2009. Clin Infect Dis 53(8):793–796
pubmed: 21896699
doi: 10.1093/cid/cir453
Wilhelm B, Muellner P, Pearl DL, Rajić A, Houde A, McEwen SA (2015) Preliminary molecular epidemiological investigation of hepatitis E virus sequences from Québec, Canada. Prev Vet Med 118(4):359–369
pubmed: 25555901
doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.12.011
Delage G, Fearon M, Gregoire Y, Hogema BM, Custer B, Scalia V et al (2019) Hepatitis E virus infection in blood donors and risk to patients in the United States and Canada. Transfus Med Rev 33(3):139–145
pubmed: 31324552
doi: 10.1016/j.tmrv.2019.05.017
Pisano MB, Mirazo S, Re VE (2020) Hepatitis E virus infection: is it really a problem in Latin America? Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 16(3):108–113
pubmed: 33005391
doi: 10.1002/cld.931
Villalba Mde L, Lay Lde L, Chandra V, Corredor MB, Frometa SS, Moreno AG et al (2008) Hepatitis E virus genotype 1, Cuba. Emerg Infect Dis 14(8):1320–1322
pubmed: 18680671
doi: 10.3201/eid1408.080049
García CG, Sánchez D, Villalba MC, Pujol FH, de Los Ángeles Rodríguez Lay L, Pinto B et al (2012) Molecular characterization of hepatitis E virus in patients with acute hepatitis in Venezuela. J Med Virol 84(7):1025–1029
pubmed: 22585718
doi: 10.1002/jmv.23277
Mirazo S, Mainardi V, Ramos N, Gerona S, Rocca A, Arbiza J (2014) Indigenous hepatitis E virus genotype 1 infection, Uruguay. Emerg Infect Dis 20(1):171–173
pubmed: 24378037
pmcid: 3884737
doi: 10.3201/eid2001.131471
Wichmann O, Schimanski S, Koch J, Kohler M, Rothe C, Plentz A et al (2008) Phylogenetic and case-control study on hepatitis E virus infection in Germany. J Infect Dis 198(12):1732–1741
pubmed: 18983248
doi: 10.1086/593211
Hakze-van der Honing RW, van Coillie E, Antonis AF, van der Poel WH (2011) First isolation of hepatitis E virus genotype 4 in Europe through swine surveillance in the Netherlands and Belgium. PloS One 6(8):e22673
pubmed: 21829641
pmcid: 3148228
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022673
Tessé S, Lioure B, Fornecker L, Wendling MJ, Stoll-Keller F, Bigaillon C et al (2012) Circulation of genotype 4 hepatitis E virus in Europe: first autochthonous hepatitis E infection in France. J Clin Virol 54(2):197–200
pubmed: 22405947
doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2012.02.007
Colson P, Romanet P, Moal V, Borentain P, Purgus R, Benezech A et al (2012) Autochthonous infections with hepatitis E virus genotype 4, France. Emerg Infect Dis 18(8):1361–1364
pubmed: 22840196
pmcid: 3414032
doi: 10.3201/eid1808.111827
Jeblaoui A, Haim-Boukobza S, Marchadier E, Mokhtari C, Roque-Afonso AM (2013) Genotype 4 hepatitis e virus in France: an autochthonous infection with a more severe presentation. Clin Infect Dis 57(4):e122–e126
pubmed: 23667262
doi: 10.1093/cid/cit291
Garbuglia AR, Scognamiglio P, Petrosillo N, Mastroianni CM, Sordillo P, Gentile D et al (2013) Hepatitis E virus genotype 4 outbreak, Italy, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 19(1):110–114
pubmed: 23260079
pmcid: 3558000
doi: 10.3201/eid1901.120983
Bouamra Y, Gérolami R, Arzouni JP, Grimaud JC, Lafforgue P, Nelli M et al (2014) Emergence of autochthonous infections with hepatitis E virus of genotype 4 in Europe. Intervirology 57(1):43–48
pubmed: 24157452
doi: 10.1159/000354801
Shrestha AC, Faddy HM, Flower RL, Seed CR, Keller AJ (2015) Hepatitis E virus: do locally acquired infections in Australia necessitate laboratory testing in acute hepatitis patients with no overseas travel history? Pathology 47(2):97–100
pubmed: 25560836
doi: 10.1097/PAT.0000000000000229
Dalton HR, Fellows HJ, Gane EJ, Wong P, Gerred S, Schroeder B et al (2007) Hepatitis E in New Zealand. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 22(8):1236–1240
pubmed: 17489963
doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.2007.04894.x
Yugo DM, Meng XJ (2013) Hepatitis E virus: foodborne, waterborne and zoonotic transmission. Int J Environ Res Public Health 10(10):4507–4533
pubmed: 24071919
pmcid: 3823334
doi: 10.3390/ijerph10104507
Pérez-Gracia MT, García M, Suay B, Mateos-Lindemann ML (2015) Current knowledge on hepatitis E. J Clin Transl Hepatol 3(2):117–126
pubmed: 26355220
pmcid: 4548356
Ippagunta SK, Naik S, Sharma B, Aggarwal R (2007) Presence of hepatitis E virus in sewage in Northern India: frequency and seasonal pattern. J Med Virol 79(12):1827–1831
pubmed: 17935174
doi: 10.1002/jmv.21017
Aggarwal R, Kamili S, Spelbring J, Krawczynski K (2001) Experimental studies on subclinical hepatitis E virus infection in cynomolgus macaques. J Infect Dis 184(11):1380–1385
pubmed: 11709779
doi: 10.1086/324376
Han J, Lei Y, Liu L, Liu P, Xia J, Zhang Y et al (2014) SPF rabbits infected with rabbit hepatitis E virus isolate experimentally showing the chronicity of hepatitis. PloS One 9(6):e99861
pubmed: 24937350
pmcid: 4061063
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099861
Viswanathan R, Sidhu AS (1957) Infectious hepatitis; clinical findings. Indian J Med Res 45(suppl):49–58
pubmed: 13438538
Khuroo MS (1980) Study of an epidemic of non-A, non-B hepatitis. Possibility of another human hepatitis virus distinct from post-transfusion non-A, non-B type. Am J Med 68(6):818–824
pubmed: 6770682
doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(80)90200-4
Velázquez O, Stetler HC, Avila C, Ornelas G, Alvarez C, Hadler SC et al (1990) Epidemic transmission of enterically transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis in Mexico, 1986-1987. JAMA 263(24):3281–3285
pubmed: 2112204
doi: 10.1001/jama.1990.03440240071018
Tsega E, Krawczynski K, Hansson BG, Nordenfelt E, Negusse Y, Alemu W et al (1991) Outbreak of acute hepatitis E virus infection among military personnel in northern Ethiopia. J Med Virol 34(4):232–236
pubmed: 1940876
doi: 10.1002/jmv.1890340407
Naik SR, Aggarwal R, Salunke PN, Mehrotra NN (1992) A large waterborne viral hepatitis E epidemic in Kanpur, India. Bull World Health Organ 70(5):597–604
pubmed: 1464145
pmcid: 2393368
Song DY, Zhuang H, Li Z (1992) Hepatitis E in Hetian city. Analysis of 562 cases. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 31(5):275–277, 316
pubmed: 1478123
Corwin AL, Khiem HB, Clayson ET, Pham KS, Vo TT, Vu TY et al (1996) A waterborne outbreak of hepatitis E virus transmission in southwestern Vietnam. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54(6):559–562
pubmed: 8686771
doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1996.54.559
Rab MA, Bile MK, Mubarik MM, Asghar H, Sami Z, Siddiqi S et al (1997) Water-borne hepatitis E virus epidemic in Islamabad, Pakistan: a common source outbreak traced to the malfunction of a modern water treatment plant. Am J Trop Med Hyg 57(2):151–157
pubmed: 9288807
doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.57.151
Clayson ET, Vaughn DW, Innis BL, Shrestha MP, Pandey R, Malla DB (1998) Association of hepatitis E virus with an outbreak of hepatitis at a military training camp in Nepal. J Med Virol 54(3):178–182
pubmed: 9515765
doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(199803)54:3<178::AID-JMV6>3.0.CO;2-2
Guthmann JP, Klovstad H, Boccia D, Hamid N, Pinoges L, Nizou JY et al (2006) A large outbreak of hepatitis E among a displaced population in Darfur, Sudan, 2004: the role of water treatment methods. Clin Infect Dis 42(12):1685–1691
pubmed: 16705572
doi: 10.1086/504321
Teshale EH, Howard CM, Grytdal SP, Handzel TR, Barry V, Kamili S et al (2010) Hepatitis E epidemic, Uganda. Emerg Infect Dis 16(1):126–129
pubmed: 20031058
doi: 10.3201/eid1601.090764
Amanya G, Kizito S, Nabukenya I, Kalyango J, Atuheire C, Nansumba H et al (2017) Risk factors, person, place and time characteristics associated with Hepatitis E Virus outbreak in Napak District, Uganda. BMC Infect Dis 17(1):451
pubmed: 28651629
pmcid: 5485539
doi: 10.1186/s12879-017-2542-2
Browne LB, Menkir Z, Kahi V, Maina G, Asnakew S, Tubman M et al (2015) Notes from the field: hepatitis E outbreak among refugees from South Sudan - Gambella, Ethiopia, April 2014-January 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 64(19):537
pubmed: 25996097
pmcid: 4584574
Basnyat B, Dalton HR, Kamar N, Rein DB, Labrique A, Farrar J et al (2015) Nepali earthquakes and the risk of an epidemic of hepatitis E. Lancet 385(9987):2572–2573
pubmed: 26091742
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61110-2
Lagare A, Ibrahim A, Ousmane S, Issaka B, Zaneidou M, Kadadé G et al (2018) Outbreak of hepatitis E virus infection in displaced persons camps in Diffa Region, Niger, 2017. Am J Trop Med Hyg 99(4):1055–1057
pubmed: 30062983
pmcid: 6159588
doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0950
Pallerla SR, Harms D, Johne R, Todt D, Steinmann E, Schemmerer M et al (2020) Hepatitis E virus infection: circulation, molecular epidemiology, and impact on global health. Pathogens 9(10):856
pubmed: 33092306
pmcid: 7589794
doi: 10.3390/pathogens9100856
Heemelaar S, Hangula AL, Chipeio ML, Josef M, Stekelenburg J, van den Akker TH et al (2022) Maternal and fetal outcomes of pregnancies complicated by acute hepatitis E and the impact of HIV status: a cross-sectional study in Namibia. Liver Int 42(1):50–58
pubmed: 34623734
doi: 10.1111/liv.15076
Desai AN, Mohareb AM, Elkarsany MM, Desalegn H, Madoff LC, Lassmann B (2022) Viral hepatitis E outbreaks in refugees and internally displaced populations, sub-Saharan Africa, 2010-2020. Emerg Infect Dis 28(5):1074–1076
pubmed: 35447070
pmcid: 9045430
doi: 10.3201/eid2805.212546
Baki AA, Haque W, Giti S, Khan AA, Rahman MM, Jubaida N et al (2021) Hepatitis E virus genotype 1f outbreak in Bangladesh, 2018. J Med Virol 93(8):5177–5181
pubmed: 33331650
doi: 10.1002/jmv.26739
Mehta N, Gupta M, Mishra M, Singh SK (2021) Hepatitis E genotype 1 outbreak in Jharkhand, India: a descriptive analysis. Infect Disord Drug Targets 21(1):99–104
pubmed: 31957617
doi: 10.2174/1871526520666200117112813
Tripathy AS, Sharma M, Thorat NC, Jadhav S, Koshatwar KA (2021) An outbreak of hepatitis E in Yavatmal, India, 2019. J Med Virol 93(6):3761–3768
pubmed: 33617043
doi: 10.1002/jmv.26377
Salman M, Ul Mustafa Z, Asif N (2019) Hepatitis E outbreak in the province of Punjab, Pakistan: a call for action. Infect Dis (Lond) 51(8):633–634
pubmed: 31240982
doi: 10.1080/23744235.2019.1632473
Kumar T, Shrivastava A, Kumar A, Laserson KF, Narain JP, Venkatesh S et al (2015) Viral hepatitis surveillance--India, 2011-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 64(28):758–762
pubmed: 26203629
pmcid: 4584861
doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6428a3
Teo CG (2012) Fatal outbreaks of jaundice in pregnancy and the epidemic history of hepatitis E. Epidemiol Infect 140(5):767–787
pubmed: 22273541
doi: 10.1017/S0950268811002925
Kim JH, Nelson KE, Panzner U, Kasture Y, Labrique AB, Wierzba TF (2014) A systematic review of the epidemiology of hepatitis E virus in Africa. BMC Infect Dis 14:308
pubmed: 24902967
pmcid: 4055251
doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-308
Khuroo MS (2011) Discovery of hepatitis E: the epidemic non-A, non-B hepatitis 30 years down the memory lane. Virus Res 161(1):3–14
pubmed: 21320558
doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.02.007
Gurley ES, Hossain MJ, Paul RC, Sazzad HM, Islam MS, Parveen S et al (2014) Outbreak of hepatitis E in urban Bangladesh resulting in maternal and perinatal mortality. Clin Infect Dis 59(5):658–665
pubmed: 24855146
pmcid: 4130310
doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu383
Siddiqui AR, Jooma RA, Smego RA Jr (2005) Nosocomial outbreak of hepatitis E infection in Pakistan with possible parenteral transmission. Clin Infect Dis 40(6):908–909
pubmed: 15736034
doi: 10.1086/428357
Mushahwar IK (2008) Hepatitis E virus: molecular virology, clinical features, diagnosis, transmission, epidemiology, and prevention. J Med Virol 80(4):646–658
pubmed: 18297720
doi: 10.1002/jmv.21116
Patra S, Kumar A, Trivedi SS, Puri M, Sarin SK (2007) Maternal and fetal outcomes in pregnant women with acute hepatitis E virus infection. Ann Intern Med 147(1):28–33
pubmed: 17606958
doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-147-1-200707030-00005
Arankalle VA, Chobe LP, Jha J, Chadha MS, Banerjee K, Favorov MO et al (1993) Aetiology of acute sporadic non-A, non-B viral hepatitis in India. J Med Virol 40(2):121–125
pubmed: 8360633
doi: 10.1002/jmv.1890400208
Said B, Ijaz S, Kafatos G, Booth L, Thomas HL, Walsh A et al (2009) Hepatitis E outbreak on cruise ship. Emerg Infect Dis 15(11):1738–1744
pubmed: 19891860
pmcid: 2857258
doi: 10.3201/eid1511.091094
Zhang L, Yan B, Xu A (2016) A hepatitis E outbreak by genotype 4 virus in Shandong province, China. Vaccine 34(33):3715–3718
pubmed: 27318419
doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.06.010
Yapa CM, Furlong C, Rosewell A, Ward KA, Adamson S, Shadbolt C et al (2016) First reported outbreak of locally acquired hepatitis E virus infection in Australia. Med J Aust 204(7):274
pubmed: 27078603
doi: 10.5694/mja15.00955
Guillois Y, Abravanel F, Miura T, Pavio N, Vaillant V, Lhomme S et al (2016) High proportion of asymptomatic infections in an outbreak of hepatitis E associated with a spit-roasted piglet, France, 2013. Clin Infect Dis 62(3):351–357
pubmed: 26429341
doi: 10.1093/cid/civ862
Rivero-Juarez A, Frias M, Martinez-Peinado A, Risalde MA, Rodriguez-Cano D, Camacho A et al (2017) Familial hepatitis E outbreak linked to wild boar meat consumption. Zoonoses Public Health 64(7):561–565
pubmed: 28067990
doi: 10.1111/zph.12343
Ishida S, Matsuura K, Yoshizumi S, Miyoshi M, Sugisawa T, Tanida M et al (2018) Hepatitis E outbreak at a nursing home for aged people in Hokkaido, Japan, between February and March 2016. J Clin Virol 101:23–28
pubmed: 29414183
doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2018.01.009
Yin W, Han Y, Xin H, Liu W, Song Q, Li Z et al (2019) Hepatitis E outbreak in a mechanical factory in Qingdao City, China. Int J Infect Dis 86:191–196
pubmed: 31310884
doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2019.07.006
Garbuglia AR, Bruni R, Villano U, Vairo F, Lapa D, Madonna E et al (2021) Hepatitis E outbreak in the central part of Italy sustained by multiple HEV genotype 3 strains, June-December 2019. Viruses 13(6):1159
pubmed: 34204376
pmcid: 8235070
doi: 10.3390/v13061159
Zhu FC, Zhang J, Zhang XF, Zhou C, Wang ZZ, Huang SJ et al (2010) Efficacy and safety of a recombinant hepatitis E vaccine in healthy adults: a large-scale, randomised, double-blind placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 376(9744):895–902
pubmed: 20728932
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61030-6
Wedemeyer H, Pischke S, Manns MP (2012) Pathogenesis and treatment of hepatitis e virus infection. Gastroenterology 142(6):1388–1397
pubmed: 22537448
doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2012.02.014
Kamar N, Izopet J, Pavio N, Aggarwal R, Labrique A, Wedemeyer H et al (2017) Hepatitis E virus infection. Nat Rev Dis Primers 3:17086
pubmed: 29154369
doi: 10.1038/nrdp.2017.86
Pischke S, Heim A, Bremer B, Raupach R, Horn-Wichmann R, Ganzenmueller T et al (2011) Hepatitis E: an emerging infectious disease in Germany? Z Gastroenterol 49(9):1255–1257
pubmed: 21887661
doi: 10.1055/s-0031-1273394
Geng Y, Zhao C, Fan J, Harrison TJ, Zhang H, Lian H et al (2013) Genotype analysis of hepatitis E virus from sporadic hepatitis E cases in northern China. Infect Genet Evol 20:413–417
pubmed: 24140474
doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2013.10.003
Shrestha MP, Scott RM, Joshi DM, Mammen MP Jr, Thapa GB, Thapa N et al (2007) Safety and efficacy of a recombinant hepatitis E vaccine. N Engl J Med 356(9):895–903
pubmed: 17329696
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa061847
Zhang J, Liu CB, Li RC, Li YM, Zheng YJ, Li YP et al (2009) Randomized-controlled phase II clinical trial of a bacterially expressed recombinant hepatitis E vaccine. Vaccine 27(12):1869–1874
pubmed: 19168109
doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.12.061
Zhang J, Shih JW, Xia NS (2015) Long-term efficacy of a hepatitis E vaccine. N Engl J Med 372(23):2265–2266
pubmed: 26039604
doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1504302
Li Y, Huang X, Zhang Z, Li S, Zhang J, Xia N et al (2020) Prophylactic hepatitis E vaccines: antigenic analysis and serological evaluation. Viruses 12(1):109
pubmed: 31963175
pmcid: 7020013
doi: 10.3390/v12010109