Beyond "greening" and "browning": Trends in grassland ground cover fractions across Eurasia that account for spatial and temporal autocorrelation.
Cumulative Endmember Fractions
MODIS
PARTS
arid environments
autoregressive
remotePARTS
spectral mixture analysis
spectral unmixing
steppe
time series
Journal
Global change biology
ISSN: 1365-2486
Titre abrégé: Glob Chang Biol
Pays: England
ID NLM: 9888746
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Aug 2023
Aug 2023
Historique:
received:
17
09
2022
accepted:
03
05
2023
medline:
17
7
2023
pubmed:
31
5
2023
entrez:
31
5
2023
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Grassland ecosystems cover up to 40% of the global land area and provide many ecosystem services directly supporting the livelihoods of over 1 billion people. Monitoring long-term changes in grasslands is crucial for food security, biodiversity conservation, achieving Land Degradation Neutrality goals, and modeling the global carbon budget. Although long-term grassland monitoring using remote sensing is extensive, it is typically based on a single vegetation index and does not account for temporal and spatial autocorrelation, which means that some trends are falsely identified while others are missed. Our goal was to analyze trends in grasslands in Eurasia, the largest continuous grassland ecosystems on Earth. To do so, we calculated Cumulative Endmember Fractions (annual sums of monthly ground cover fractions) derived from MODIS 2002-2020 time series, and applied a new statistical approach PARTS that explicitly accounts for temporal and spatial autocorrelation in trends. We examined trends in green vegetation, non-photosynthetic vegetation, and soil ground cover fractions considering their independent change trajectories and relations among fractions over time. We derived temporally uncorrelated pixel-based trend maps and statistically tested whether observed trends could be explained by elevation, land cover, SPEI3, climate, country, and their combinations, all while accounting for spatial autocorrelation. We found no statistical evidence for a decrease in vegetation cover in grasslands in Eurasia. Instead, there was a significant map-level increase in non-photosynthetic vegetation across the region and local increases in green vegetation with a concomitant decrease in soil fraction. Independent environmental variables affected trends significantly, but effects varied by region. Overall, our analyses show in a statistically robust manner that Eurasian grasslands have changed considerably over the past two decades. Our approach enhances remote sensing-based monitoring of trends in grasslands so that underlying processes can be discerned.
Substances chimiques
Soil
0
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
4620-4637Subventions
Organisme : Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate
ID : 80NSSC18K0316
Organisme : Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate
ID : 80NSSC18K0343
Organisme : Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate
ID : NASAAIST- 80NSSC20K0282
Informations de copyright
© 2023 The Authors. Global Change Biology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Références
Ali, I., Cawkwell, F., Dwyer, E., Barrett, B., & Green, S. (2016). Satellite remote sensing of grasslands: From observation to management. Journal of Plant Ecology, 9(6), 649-671. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtw005
Bardgett, R. D., Bullock, J. M., Lavorel, S., Manning, P., Ostle, N., Chomel, M., Durigan, G., Fry, E. L., Johnson, D., Lavallee, J. M., Le Provost, G., Luo, S., Png, K., Sankaran, M., Hou, X., Zhou, H., Ma, L., Ren, W., Li, X., … Shi, H. (2021). Combatting global grassland degradation. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 2(10), 720-735. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00207-2
Baumann, M., Kamp, J., Pötzschner, F., Bleyhl, B., Dara, A., Hankerson, B., Prishchepov, A. V., Schierhorn, F., Müller, D., Hölzel, N., Krämer, R., Urazaliyev, R., & Kuemmerle, T. (2020). Declining human pressure and opportunities for rewilding in the steppes of Eurasia. Diversity and Distributions, 26, 1058-1070. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13110
Beck, H. E., Zimmermann, N. E., Mcvicar, T. R., Vergopolan, N., Berg, A., & Wood, E. F. (2018). Data Descriptor: Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution. Nature Publishing Group, 5, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2018.214
Bengtsson, J., Bullock, J. M., Egoh, B., Everson, C., Everson, T., O'Connor, T., O'Farrell, P. J., Smith, H. G., & Lindborg, R. (2019). Grasslands-More important for ecosystem services than you might think. Ecosphere, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2582
Bi, J., Xu, L., Samanta, A., Zhu, Z., & Myneni, R. (2013). Divergent arctic-boreal vegetation changes between North America and Eurasia over the past 30 years. Remote Sensing, 5, 2093-2112. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5052093
Bullock, E. L., Woodcock, C. E., & Olofsson, P. (2018). Monitoring tropical forest degradation using spectral unmixing and Landsat time series analysis. Remote Sensing of Environment, 238(April), 110968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.11.011
Cai, D., Wang, X., Jiao, L., & Geng, X. (2022). Baseline and status of desertification in Central Asia. Land Degradation & Development, 33(November 2021), 771-784. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.4214
Chen, C., Park, T., Wang, X., Piao, S., Xu, B., Chaturvedi, R. K., Fuchs, R., Brovkin, V., Ciais, P., Fensholt, R., Tømmervik, H., Bala, G., Zhu, Z., Nemani, R. R., & Myneni, R. B. (2019). China and India lead in greening of the world through land-use management. Nature Sustainability, 2(February), 122-129. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0220-7
Chen, H., Marter-kenyon, J., López-carr, D., & Liang, X. (2015). Land cover and landscape changes in Shaanxi Province during China's Grain for Green Program (2000-2010). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4881-z
Chen, J., Yuan, M., Wang, L., Shimazaki, H., & Tamura, M. (2005). A new index for mapping lichen-dominated biological soil crusts in desert areas. Remote Sensing of Environment, 96, 165-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2005.02.011
Chen, S., Woodcock, C. E., Bullock, E. L., Ar, P., Service, U. S. F., & Mountain, R. (2021). Monitoring temperate forest degradation on Google Earth Engine using Landsat time series analysis. Remote Sensing of Environment, 265, 112648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2021.112648
Cherlet, M., Hutchinson, C., Reynolds, J., Hill, J., Sommer, S., & von Maltitz, G. (Eds.). (2018). World atlas of desertification. Publication Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10.2760/9205
Cortés, J., Mahecha, M. D., & Reichstein, M. (2021). Where are global vegetation greening and browning trends significant? Geophysical Research Letters, 48, e2020GL091496. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL091496
Cowie, A. L., Orr, B. J., Castillo Sanchez, V. M., Chasek, P., Crossman, N. D., Erlewein, A., Louwagie, G., Maron, M., Metternicht, G. I., Minelli, S., Tengberg, A. E., & Welton, S. (2018). Land in balance: The scientific conceptual framework for Land Degradation Neutrality. Environmental Science and Policy, 79(November 2017), 25-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.10.011
Dara, A., Baumann, M., Freitag, M., Hölzel, N., Hostert, P., Kamp, J., Müller, D., Prishchepov, A. V., & Kuemmerle, T. (2020). Annual Landsat time series reveal post-Soviet changes in grazing pressure. Remote Sensing of Environment, 239(April 2019), 111667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111667
Dara, A., Baumann, M., Hölzel, N., Hostert, P., Kamp, J., Müller, D., Ullrich, B., & Kuemmerle, T. (2019). Post-Soviet land-use change affected fire regimes on the Eurasian Steppes. Ecosystems, 23, 943-956. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-019-00447-w
Dara, A., Baumann, M., Kuemmerle, T., Pflugmacher, D., Rabe, A., Griffiths, P., Hölzel, N., Kamp, J., Freitag, M., & Hostert, P. (2018). Mapping the timing of cropland abandonment and recultivation in northern Kazakhstan using annual Landsat time series. Remote Sensing of Environment, 213(September 2017), 49-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.05.005
de Beurs, K. M., Wright, C. K., & Henebry, G. M. (2009). Dual scale trend analysis for evaluating climatic and anthropogenic effects on the vegetated land surface in Russia and Kazakhstan. Environmental Research Letters, 4(4). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045012
de Beurs, K. M., & Henebry, G. M. (2004). Land surface phenology, climatic variation, and institutional change: Analyzing agricultural land cover change in Kazakhstan. Remote Sensing of Environment, 89(4), 497-509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2003.11.006
de Beurs, K. M., Henebry, G. M., Owsley, B. C., & Sokolik, I. (2015). Using multiple remote sensing perspectives to identify and attribute land surface dynamics in Central Asia 2001-2013. Remote Sensing of Environment, 170, 48-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.08.018
de Jong, R., De Bruin, S., De Wit, A., Schaepman, M. E., & Dent, D. L. (2011). Analysis of monotonic greening and browning trends from global NDVI time-series. Remote Sensing of Environment, 115(2), 692-702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.10.011
de Jong, R., Schaepman, M. E., Furrer, R., de Bruin, S., & Verburg, P. H. (2013). Spatial relationship between climatologies and changes in global vegetation activity. Global Change Biology, 19(6), 1953-1964. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12193
de Jong, R., Verbesselt, J., Schaepman, M. E., & de Bruin, S. (2012). Trend changes in global greening and browning: Contribution of short-term trends to longer-term change. Global Change Biology, 18(2), 642-655. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02578.x
De Keersmaecker, W., Lhermitte, S., Tits, L., & Honnay, O. (2015). A model quantifying global vegetation resistance and resilience to short-term climate anomalies and their relationship with vegetation cover. Global Change Biology, 20, 2149-2161. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12279
Ding, C., Huang, W., Li, Y., Zhao, S., & Huang, F. (2020). Nonlinear changes in dryland vegetation greenness over East Inner Mongolia, China, in recent years. Sensors, 20(3839), 1-14.
Dubinin, M., Luschekina, A., & Radeloff, V. C. (2011). Climate, livestock, and vegetation: What drives fire increase in the arid ecosystems of southern Russia? Ecosystems, 14(4), 547-562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-011-9427-9
Elmore, A. J., Mustard, J. F., Manning, S. J., & Lobell, D. B. (2000). Quantifying vegetation change in semiarid environments: Precision and accuracy of spectral mixture analysis and the normalized difference vegetation index. Remote Sensing of Environment, 102(March 1999), 87-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(00)00100-0
FAO. (2005). Grasslands of the world (J. M. Suttie, S. G. Reynolds, & C. Batello, Eds.) (Vol. 2005). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. https://search.library.wisc.edu/catalog/9910012077802121
FAO. (2015). Global Administrative Unit Layers (GAUL). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). http://www.fao.org/geonetwork
Freitag, M., Kamp, J., Dara, A., Kuemmerle, T., Sidorova, T. V., Stirnemann, I. A., Velbert, F., & Hölzel, N. (2021). Post-Soviet shifts in grazing and fire regimes changed the functional plant community composition on the Eurasian steppe. Global Change Biology, 27(July 2020), 388-401. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15411
Gao, F., Masek, J., Schwaller, M., & Hall, F. (2006). On the blending of the MODIS and Landsat ETM + surface reflectance: Predicting daily Landsat surface reflectanc. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 44(8), 2207-2218. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2006.872081
Gorelick, N., Hancher, M., Dixon, M., Ilyushchenko, S., Thau, D., & Moore, R. (2017). Google Earth engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sensing of Environment, 202, 18-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.031
Guerschman, J. P., Scarth, P. F., McVicar, T. R., Renzullo, L. J., Malthus, T. J., Stewart, J. B., Rickards, J. E., & Trevithick, R. (2015). Assessing the effects of site heterogeneity and soil properties when unmixing photosynthetic vegetation, non-photosynthetic vegetation and bare soil fractions from Landsat and MODIS data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 161, 12-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.01.021
Guo, H., Bao, A., Liu, T., Jiapaer, G., Ndayisaba, F., & Jiang, L. (2018). Spatial and temporal characteristics of droughts in Central Asia 1966-2015. Science of the Total Environment, 624, 1523-1538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.120
Hankerson, B. R., Schierhorn, F., Prishchepov, A. V., Dong, C., Eisfelder, C., & Mu, D. (2019). Modeling the spatial distribution of grazing intensity in Kazakhstan. PLoS ONE, 2050, 1-27.
Hilker, T., Wulder, M. A., Coops, N. C., Linke, J., McDermid, G., Masek, J. G., Gao, F., & White, J. C. (2009). A new data fusion model for high spatial- and temporal-resolution mapping of forest disturbance based on Landsat and MODIS. Remote Sensing of Environment, 113(8), 1613-1627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.03.007
Hill, M. J., & Guerschman, J. P. (2020). The MODIS global vegetation fractional cover product 2001-2018: Characteristics of vegetation fractional cover in grasslands and savanna woodlands. Remote Sensing, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030406
Hirsch, R. M., & Slack, J. R. (1984). A nonparametric trend test for seasonal data with serial dependence. Water Resources Research, 20(6), 727-732.
Hobi, M. L., Dubinin, M., Graham, C. H., Coops, N. C., Clayton, M. K., Pidgeon, A. M., & Radeloff, V. C. (2017). A comparison of Dynamic Habitat Indices derived from different MODIS products as predictors of avian species richness. Remote Sensing of Environment, 195, 142-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.04.018
Horion, S., Prishchepov, A. V., Verbesselt, J., de Beurs, K., Tagesson, T., & Fensholt, R. (2016). Revealing turning points in ecosystem functioning over the Northern Eurasian agricultural frontier. Global Change Biology, 22(8), 2801-2817. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13267
Hu, Y., Han, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2020). Land desertification and its influencing factors in Kazakhstan. Journal of Arid Environments, 180(April), 104203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104203
Hu, Y., & Nacun, B. (2018). An analysis of land-use change and grassland degradation from a policy perspective in Inner Mongolia, China, 1990-2015. Sustainability, 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10114048
Huete, A. R., Jackson, R. D., & Post, D. F. (1985). Spectral response of a plant canopy with different soil backgrounds. Remote Sensing of Environment, 17(1), 37-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(85)90111-7
IPBES. (2018). The IPBES assessment report on land degradation and restoration. Companion to Environmental Studies. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315640051-105
IPCC. (2019). Special report on climate change and land. IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/srccl/
Ives, A. R., Zhu, L., Wang, F., Zhu, J., Morrow, C. J., & Radeloff, C. (2021). Statistical inference for trends in spatiotemporal data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 266(September), 112678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2021.112678
Ives, A. R., Zhu, L., Wang, F., Zhu, J., Morrow, C. J., & Radeloff, V. C. (2022). Statistical tests for non-independent partitions of large autocorrelated datasets. MethodsX, 9, 101660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2022.101660
Jiang, L., Jiapaer, G., Bao, A., Guo, H., & Ndayisaba, F. (2017). Vegetation dynamics and responses to climate change and human activities in Central Asia. Science of the Total Environment, 599-600, 967-980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.012
Karch, F., Jerzy, F., & Timoshenko, V. P. (1964). Soviet Agricultural Policy, 1953-1962. Food Research Institute Studies.
Karger, D. N., Conrad, O., Böhner, J., Kawohl, T., Kreft, H., Soria-Auza, R. W., Zimmermann, N. E., Linder, P., & Kessler, M. (2017). Data Descriptor: Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas. Nature Publishing Group, 4, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2017.122
Kerven, C., Robinson, S., & Behnke, R. (2021). Pastoralism at scale on the Kazakh rangelands: From clans to workers to ranchers. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4(January), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.590401
Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., & Rubel, F. (2006). World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, 15(3), 259-263. https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130
Kowalski, K., Okujeni, A., Brell, M., & Hostert, P. (2022). Quantifying drought effects in Central European grasslands through regression-based unmixing of intra-annual Sentinel-2 time series. Remote Sensing of Environment, 268(November 2021), 112781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2021.112781
Kraemer, R., Prishchepov, A. V., Müller, D., Kuemmerle, T., Radeloff, V. C., Dara, A., Terekhov, A., & Frühauf, M. (2015). Long-term agricultural land-cover change and potential for cropland expansion in the former Virgin Lands area of Kazakhstan. Environmental Research Letters, 10. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/5/054012
Lesiv, M., Schepaschenko, D., Moltchanova, E., Bun, R., Dürauer, M., Prishchepov, A. V., Schierhorn, F., Estel, S., Kuemmerle, T., Alcántara, C., Kussul, N., Shchepashchenko, M., Kutovaya, O., Martynenko, O., Karminov, V., Shvidenko, A., Havlik, P., Kraxner, F., See, L., & Fritz, S. (2018). Data descriptor: Spatial distribution of arable and abandoned land across former Soviet Union countries. Scientific Data, 5, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2018.56
Lewińska, K. E., Buchner, J., Bleyhl, B., & Hostert, P. (2021). Changes in the grasslands of the Caucasus based on Cumulative Endmember Fractions from the full 1987-2019 Landsat record. Science of Remote Sensing, 4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srs.2021.100035
Lewińska, K. E., Hostert, P., Buchner, J., Bleyhl, B., & Radeloff, V. C. (2020). Short-term vegetation loss versus decadal degradation of grasslands in the Caucasus based on Cumulative Endmember Fractions. Remote Sensing of Environment, 248(June), 111969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111969
Li, Z., Chen, Y., Li, W., Deng, H., & Fang, G. (2015). Potential impacts of climate change on vegetation dynamics in Central Asia. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 120, 12345-12356. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023618
Lioubimtseva, E., & Henebry, G. M. (2009). Climate and environmental change in arid Central Asia: Impacts, vulnerability, and adaptations. Journal of Arid Environments, 73(11), 963-977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.04.022
Lorenz, K., & Lal, R. (2018). Carbon sequestration in grassland soils. In Carbon sequestration in agricultural ecosystems (pp. 175-209). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92318-5_4
Lyapustin, A., Wang, Y., Xiong, X., Meister, G., Platnick, S., Levy, R., Franz, B., Korkin, S., Hilker, T., Tucker, J., Hall, F., Sellers, P., Wu, A., & Angal, A. (2014). Scientific impact of MODIS C5 calibration degradation and C6+ improvements. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 7, 4353-4365. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-4353-2014
Masek, J. G., Vermote, E. F., Saleous, N. E., Wolfe, R., Hall, F. G., Huemmrich, K. F., Gao, F., Kutler, J., & Lim, T. K. (2006). A landsat surface reflectance dataset for North America, 1990-2000. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters, 3(1), 68-72. https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2005.857030
Masiliunas, D., Tsendbazar, N., Herold, M., Lesiv, M., Buchhorn, M., & Verbesselt, J. (2021). Global land characterisation using land cover fractions at 100 m resolution. Remote Sensing of Environment, 259(March), 112409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2021.112409
Meer, F. D. V. D., & Jia, X. (2012). Collinearity and orthogonality of endmembers in linear spectral unmixing. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 18, 491-503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2011.10.004
Meng, X., Gao, X., Li, S., Li, S., & Lei, J. (2021). Monitoring desertification in Mongolia based on Landsat images and Google Earth Engine from 1990 to 2020. Ecological Indicators, 129, 107908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107908
Meyfroidt, P., Schierhorn, F., Prishchepov, A. V., Müller, D., & Kuemmerle, T. (2016). Drivers, constraints and trade-offs associated with recultivating abandoned cropland in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Global Environmental Change, 37, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.01.003
Miao, L., Sun, Z., Müller, D., Ren, Y., & Schierhorn, F. (2021). Grassland greening on the Mongolian Plateau despite higher grazing intensity. Land Degradation & Development, 32(September 2020), 792-802. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3767
Munier, S., Carrer, D., Planque, C., & Camacho, F. (2018). Satellite leaf area index: Global scale analysis of the tendencies per vegetation type over the last 17 years. Remote Sensing, 10(424), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030424
Muñoz Sabater, J. (2019). ERA5-Land monthly averaged data from 1981 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.68d2bb3
Ni, J. (2002). Carbon storage in grasslands of China. Journal of Arid Environments, 50, 205-218. https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.2001.0902
Nill, L., Grünberg, I., Ullmann, T., Gessner, M., Boike, J., & Hostert, P. (2022). Arctic shrub expansion revealed by Landsat-derived multitemporal vegetation cover fractions in the Western Canadian Arctic. Remote Sensing of Environment, 281(September), 113228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2022.113228
Olson, A., David, M., Eric, D., Neil, D., & George, V. N. (2001). Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: A new map of life on earth. BioScience, 51(11), 933-938.
O'Mara, F. P. (2012). The role of grasslands in food security and climate change. Annals of Botany, 110(6), 1263-1270. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcs209
Pan, N., Feng, X., Fu, B., Wang, S., Ji, F., & Pan, S. (2018). Increasing global vegetation browning hidden in overall vegetation greening: Insights from time-varying trends. Remote Sensing of Environment, 214(May), 59-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.05.018
Panunzi, E. (2008). Are grasslands under threat? FAO. www.fao.org/uploads/media/grass_stats_1.pdf
Pasolli, L., Asam, S., Castelli, M., Bruzzone, L., Wohlfahrt, G., Zebisch, M., & Notarnicola, C. (2015). Retrieval of Leaf Area Index in mountain grasslands in the Alps from MODIS satellite imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 165, 159-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.04.027
Prishchepov, A. V., Schierhorn, F., Dronin, N., Ponkina, E. V., & Müller, D. (2020). 800 years of agricultural land-use change in Asian (Eastern) Russia. In M. Frühauf, G. Guggenberger, T. Meinel, I. Theesfeld, & S. Lentz (Eds.), KULUNDA: Climate smart agriculture: South Siberian agro-steppe as pioneering region for sustainable land use (pp. 67-87). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15927-6_6
Prishchepov, A. V., Müller, D., Dubinin, M., Baumann, M., & Radeloff, V. C. (2013). Determinants of agricultural land abandonment in post-Soviet European Russia. Land Use Policy, 30(1), 873-884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.06.011
Reinermann, S., Asam, S., & Kuenzer, C. (2020). Remote sensing of grassland production and management-A review. Remote Sensing, 12(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12121949
Robinson, S. (2016). Land degradation in Central Asia: Evidence, perception and policy. In R. Behnke & M. Mortimore (Eds.), The end of desertification?: Disputing environmental change in the drylands (pp. 451-490). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-16014-1_17
Rolinski, S., Prishchepov, A. V., Guggenberger, G., Bischoff, N., Kurganova, I., Schierhorn, F., Müller, D., & Müller, C. (2021). Dynamics of soil organic carbon in the steppes of Russia and Kazakhstan under past and future climate and land use. Regional Environmental Change, 21, 73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01799-7
Roy, D. P., Kovalskyy, V., Zhang, H. K., Vermote, E. F., Yan, L., Kumar, S. S., & Egorov, A. (2016). Characterization of Landsat-7 to Landsat-8 reflective wavelength and normalized difference vegetation index continuity. Remote Sensing of Environment, 185, 57-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.12.024
Saiko, T. A., & Zonn, I. S. (2000). Irrigation expansion and dynamics of desertification in the Circum-Aral region of Central Asia. Applied Geography, 20, 349-367.
Sanzheev, E. D., Mikheeva, A. S., Osodoev, P. V., Batomunkuev, V. S., & Tulokhonov, A. K. (2020). Theoretical approaches and practical assessment of socio-economic effects of desertification in Mongolia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 4068. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114068
Sheffield, J., Andreadis, K. M., Wood, E. F., & Lettenmaier, D. P. (2009). Global and continental drought in the second half of the twentieth century: Severity-Area-Duration analysis and temporal variability of large-scale events. Journal of Climate, 22, 1962-1981. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2722.1
Smelansky, I. E., & Tishkov, A. A. (2012). The Steppe biome in Russia: Ecosystem services, conservation status, and actual challenges. In Eurasian Steppes. Ecological problems and livelihoods in a changing world (pp. 45-101). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3886-7
Smith, W. K., Dannenberg, M. P., Yan, D., Herrmann, S., Barnes, M. L., Barron-Gafford, G. A., Biederman, J. A., Ferrenberg, S., Fox, A. M., Hudson, A., Knowles, J. F., MacBean, N., Moore, D. J. P., Nagler, P. L., Reed, S. C., Rutherford, W. A., Scott, R. L., Wang, X., & Yang, J. (2019). Remote sensing of dryland ecosystem structure and function: Progress, challenges, and opportunities. Remote Sensing of Environment, 233(August), 111401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111401
Song, X., Peng, C., Zhou, G., Jiang, H., & Wang, W. (2014). Chinese Grain for Green Program led to highly increased soil organic carbon. Scientific Reports, 4, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04460
Sulla-Menashe, D., & Friedl, M. A. (2018). User guide to collection 6 MODIS land cover (MCD12Q1 and MCD12C1) product. USGS, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MCD12Q1
Sulla-Menashe, D., Gray, J. M., Abercrombie, S. P., & Friedl, M. A. (2019). Hierarchical mapping of annual global land cover 2001 to present: The MODIS Collection 6 Land Cover product. Remote Sensing of Environment, 222(April 2018), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.12.013
Tomaszewska, M., & Henebry, G. (2018). Changing snow seasonality in the highlands of Kyrgyzstan. Environmental Research Letters, 13, 065006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabd6f
Tomaszewska, M. A., Nguyen, L. H., & Henebry, G. M. (2020). Land surface phenology in the highland pastures of montane Central Asia: Interactions with snow cover seasonality and terrain characteristics. Remote Sensing of Environment, 240(December 2019), 111675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111675
UN General Assembly. (2021). Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 1 March 2019 [A/73/L.76 and A/73/L.76/Add.1 United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030)] (Vol. 03519).
UNEP. (2011). Caspian Sea State of the Environment. Encyclopedia of Environment and Society. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11822/9712
USGS. (1997). USGS 30 ARC-second Global Elevation Data, GTOPO30. Research Data Archive at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Computational and Information Systems Laboratory. https://doi.org/10.5065/A1Z4-EE71
Vermote, E., Justice, C., Claverie, M., & Franch, B. (2016). Preliminary analysis of the performance of the Landsat 8/OLI land surface reflectance product. Remote Sensing of Environment, 185, 46-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.04.008
Vermote, E. F., El Saleous, N. Z., & Justice, C. O. (2002). Atmospheric correction of MODIS data in the visible to middleinfrared: First results. Remote Sensing of Environment, 83, 97-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00089-5
Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Beguería, S., & López-Moreno, J. I. (2010). A multiscalar drought index sensitive to global warming: The standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index. Journal of Climate, 23(7), 1696-1718. https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2909.1
Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Beguería, S., Lorenzo-Lacruz, J., Camarero, J. J., López-Moreno, J. I., Azorin-Molina, C., Revuelto, J., Morán-Tejeda, E., & Sanchez-Lorenzo, A. (2012). Performance of drought indices for ecological, agricultural, and hydrological applications. Earth Interactions, 16(10), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1175/2012EI000434.1
Winkler, K., Fuchs, R., Rounsevell, M., & Herold, M. (2021). Global land use changes are four times greater than previously estimated. Nature Communications, 12, 2501. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22702-2
Xu, L., Myneni, R. B., Iii, F. S. C., Callaghan, T. V., Pinzon, J. E., Tucker, C. J., Zhu, Z., Bi, J., Ciais, P., Tømmervik, H., Euskirchen, E. S., Forbes, B. C., Piao, S. L., Anderson, B. T., Ganguly, S., Nemani, R. R., Goetz, S. J., Beck, P. S. A., Bunn, A. G., … Stroeve, J. C. (2013). Temperature and vegetation seasonality diminishment over northern lands. Nature Climate Change, 3(March), 581-586. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1836
Yin, H., Pflugmachera, D., Li, A., Li, Z., & Hostert, P. (2018). Land use and land cover change in Inner Mongolia-Understanding the effects of China's re-vegetation programs. Remote Sensing of Environment, 204(October 2017), 918-930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.08.030
Zandler, H., Senftl, T., & Vanselow, K. A. (2020). Reanalysis datasets outperform other gridded climate products in vegetation change analysis in peripheral conservation areas of Central Asia. Scientific Reports, 10, 22446. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79480-y
Zhang, G., Biradar, C. M., Xiao, X., Dong, J., Zhou, Y., Qin, Y., Zhang, Y., Liu, F., Ding, M., & Thomas, R. J. (2018). Exacerbated grassland degradation and desertification in Central Asia during 2000-2014. Ecological Applications, 28(2), 442-456. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1660
Zhang, Y., Wang, Q., Wang, Z., Li, J., & Xu, Z. (2021). Dynamics and drivers of grasslands in the Eurasian Steppe during 2000-2014. Sustainability, 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13115887
Zhou, L., Tucker, C. J., Kaufmann, R. K., Slayback, D., Shabanov, N. V., & Myneni, R. B. (2001). Variations in northern vegetation activity inferred from satellite data of vegetation index during 1981 to 1999. Journal or Geographical Research, 106, 20069-20083.
Zhu, L., Ives, A. R., Zhang, C., Guo, Y., & Radeloff, V. C. (2019). Climate change causes functionally colder winters for snow cover-dependent organisms. Nature Climate Change, 9, 886-893. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0588-4
Zhu, Z., & Woodcock, C. E. (2012). Object-based cloud and cloud shadow detection in Landsat imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 118, 83-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.10.028
Zhumanova, M., Wrage-mönnig, N., & Jurasinski, G. (2021). Science of the Total Environment Long-term vegetation change in the Western Tien-Shan Mountain pastures, Central Asia, driven by a combination of changing precipitation patterns and grazing pressure. Science of the Total Environment, 781, 146720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146720