High Systolic Blood Pressure of High-Income African American Children.
Blood pressure
Body mass index
Race
Socioeconomic position
Journal
Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities
ISSN: 2196-8837
Titre abrégé: J Racial Ethn Health Disparities
Pays: Switzerland
ID NLM: 101628476
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
07 Jul 2023
07 Jul 2023
Historique:
received:
11
04
2023
accepted:
29
05
2023
revised:
24
05
2023
medline:
7
7
2023
pubmed:
7
7
2023
entrez:
7
7
2023
Statut:
aheadofprint
Résumé
According to the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory, racism may reduce the health returns of family socioeconomic status (SEP) resources such as family income for racial minorities, particularly African Americans, compared to Whites. However, we are unaware of any previous studies on racial variation in the protective effects of family income on children's blood pressure. We conducted this study to compare the overall effects of family income on pre-adolescents' systolic and diastolic blood pressure, test racial variation in this effect, and investigate whether racial variation in this regard is due to racial differences in body mass index. In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed data from 4007 racially diverse US children 9-10 years old. The independent variable was family income measured as a three-level categorical variable: less than $50 K USD, 50-100 K USD, and 100 + K USD. The primary outcomes were systolic and diastolic blood pressure measured up to three times at 1-min time intervals. Body mass index was the mediator. Mixed-effects regression models were used for data analysis to adjust for data nested to the centers, families, and individuals. Age, gender, parental education, family structure, and Latino ethnicity were covariates. In the pooled sample and in the absence of interaction terms in the model, family income did not show an inverse association with children's systolic (for 100 + K USD family income: β = - 0.71, p = 0.233 and for 50-100 K USD family income: β = 0.01, p = 0.989) or diastolic blood pressure (for 100 + K USD family income: β = - 0.66, p = 0.172 and for 50-100 K USD family income: β = 0.23, p = 0.600). However, race showed a significant interaction with family income on systolic blood pressure (for 50-100 K USD × African American: β = 2.75, p = 0.034), suggesting higher systolic blood pressure of African American adolescents from high-income backgrounds. Racial variation in the protective effect of family income on systolic BP was no more significant (for 50-100 K USD × African American: β = 2.14, p = 0.149) after we controlled for body mass index (BMI), which was higher for African American than White adolescents. The association between high family income and reduced systolic blood pressure in pre-adolescence might be weaker for African Americans compared to Whites, a difference that African American adolescents' higher body mass index can explain.
Sections du résumé
BACKGROUND
BACKGROUND
According to the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory, racism may reduce the health returns of family socioeconomic status (SEP) resources such as family income for racial minorities, particularly African Americans, compared to Whites. However, we are unaware of any previous studies on racial variation in the protective effects of family income on children's blood pressure.
AIM
OBJECTIVE
We conducted this study to compare the overall effects of family income on pre-adolescents' systolic and diastolic blood pressure, test racial variation in this effect, and investigate whether racial variation in this regard is due to racial differences in body mass index.
METHODS
METHODS
In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed data from 4007 racially diverse US children 9-10 years old. The independent variable was family income measured as a three-level categorical variable: less than $50 K USD, 50-100 K USD, and 100 + K USD. The primary outcomes were systolic and diastolic blood pressure measured up to three times at 1-min time intervals. Body mass index was the mediator. Mixed-effects regression models were used for data analysis to adjust for data nested to the centers, families, and individuals. Age, gender, parental education, family structure, and Latino ethnicity were covariates.
RESULTS
RESULTS
In the pooled sample and in the absence of interaction terms in the model, family income did not show an inverse association with children's systolic (for 100 + K USD family income: β = - 0.71, p = 0.233 and for 50-100 K USD family income: β = 0.01, p = 0.989) or diastolic blood pressure (for 100 + K USD family income: β = - 0.66, p = 0.172 and for 50-100 K USD family income: β = 0.23, p = 0.600). However, race showed a significant interaction with family income on systolic blood pressure (for 50-100 K USD × African American: β = 2.75, p = 0.034), suggesting higher systolic blood pressure of African American adolescents from high-income backgrounds. Racial variation in the protective effect of family income on systolic BP was no more significant (for 50-100 K USD × African American: β = 2.14, p = 0.149) after we controlled for body mass index (BMI), which was higher for African American than White adolescents.
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSIONS
The association between high family income and reduced systolic blood pressure in pre-adolescence might be weaker for African Americans compared to Whites, a difference that African American adolescents' higher body mass index can explain.
Identifiants
pubmed: 37418111
doi: 10.1007/s40615-023-01668-5
pii: 10.1007/s40615-023-01668-5
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Informations de copyright
© 2023. The Author(s).
Références
Maguire-Jack K, Lanier P, Lombardi B. Investigating racial differences in clusters of adverse childhood experiences. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2020;90(1):106–14.
pubmed: 30816722
doi: 10.1037/ort0000405
Kaufman JS, Cooper RS, McGee DL. Socioeconomic status and health in blacks and whites: the problem of residual confounding and the resiliency of race. Epidemiology. 1997;8(6):621–8.
pubmed: 9345660
Mock SE, Arai SM. Childhood trauma and chronic illness in adulthood: mental health and socioeconomic status as explanatory factors and buffers. Front Psychol. 2010;1:246.
pubmed: 21833299
Lantz PM, House JS, Mero RP, Williams DR. Stress, life events, and socioeconomic disparities in health: results from the Americans’ Changing Lives Study. J Health Soc Behav. 2005;46(3):274–88.
pubmed: 16259149
doi: 10.1177/002214650504600305
Assari S. Social determinants of depression: the intersections of race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Brain Sci. 2017;7(12):156.
Assari S, Lankarani MM. Race and urbanity alter the protective effect of education but not income on mortality. Front Public Health. 2016;4:100.
pubmed: 27242992
pmcid: 4873510
doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2016.00100
Berg AO, Aas M, Larsson S, Nerhus M, Hauff E, Andreassen OA, et al. Childhood trauma mediates the association between ethnic minority status and more severe hallucinations in psychotic disorder. Psychol Med. 2015;45(1):133–42.
pubmed: 25065296
doi: 10.1017/S0033291714001135
Assari S, Lankarani MM, Caldwell CH. Does discrimination explain high risk of depression among high-income African American men? Behav Sci (Basel). 2018;8(4):40.
Hudson DL, Neighbors HW, Geronimus AT, Jackson JS. Racial discrimination, John Henryism, and depression among African Americans. J Black Psychol. 2016;42(3):221–43.
pubmed: 27529626
pmcid: 4903152
doi: 10.1177/0095798414567757
Hudson DL, Puterman E, Bibbins-Domingo K, Matthews KA, Adler NE. Race, life course socioeconomic position, racial discrimination, depressive symptoms and self-rated health. Soc Sci Med. 2013;97:7–14.
pubmed: 24161083
doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.07.031
Hudson DL, Bullard KM, Neighbors HW, Geronimus AT, Yang J, Jackson JS. Are benefits conferred with greater socioeconomic position undermined by racial discrimination among African American men? J Mens Health. 2012;9(2):127–36.
pubmed: 22707995
pmcid: 3371660
doi: 10.1016/j.jomh.2012.03.006
Assari S, Gibbons FX, Simons R. Depression among black youth; Interaction of class and place. Brain Sci. 2018;8(6):108.
Assari S, Gibbons FX, Simons RL. Perceived discrimination among black youth: an 18-year longitudinal study. Behav Sci (Basel). 2018;8(5):44.
Assari S. Family socioeconomic status and exposure to childhood trauma: racial differences. Children. 2020;7(6):57.
pubmed: 32503310
pmcid: 7346200
doi: 10.3390/children7060057
Assari S. Parental education and spanking of American children: Blacks’ Diminished Returns. World J Educ Res. 2020;7(3):19–44.
pubmed: 32734000
doi: 10.22158/wjer.v7n3p19
Assari S, Bazargan M. Unequal associations between educational attainment and occupational stress across racial and ethnic groups. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(19):3539.
pubmed: 31546681
pmcid: 6801852
doi: 10.3390/ijerph16193539
Assari S, Preiser B, Kelly M. Education and income predict future emotional well-being of whites but not blacks: a ten-year cohort. Brain Sci. 2018;8(7):122.
Assari S. Parental education better helps White than Black families escape poverty: National Survey of Children’s Health. Economies. 2018;6(2):30.
doi: 10.3390/economies6020030
Assari S. Race, intergenerational social mobility and stressful life events. Behav Sci (Basel). 2018;8(10):86.
Assari S, Boyce S, Caldwell CH, Bazargan M, Mincy R. Family income and gang presence in the neighborhood: Diminished Returns of Black families. Urban Sci. 2020;4(2):29.
pubmed: 32671278
pmcid: 7363405
doi: 10.3390/urbansci4020029
Assari S. Health disparities due to Diminished Return among black Americans: public policy solutions. Soc Issues Policy Rev. 2018;12(1):112–45.
doi: 10.1111/sipr.12042
Assari S. Unequal gain of equal resources across racial groups. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2017;7(1):1–9.
pmcid: 5745862
doi: 10.15171/ijhpm.2017.90
Assari S. Parental educational attainment and mental well-being of college students; diminished returns of blacks. Brain Sci. 2018;8(11):193.
Assari S. Blacks' diminished return of education attainment on subjective health; Mediating effect of income. Brain Sci. 2018;8(9):176.
Assari S, Caldwell CH, Mincy R. Family socioeconomic status at birth and youth impulsivity at age 15; Blacks' diminished return. Children (Basel). 2018;5(5):58.
Assari S, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman MA. Family structure and subsequent anxiety symptoms; minorities' diminished return. Brain Sci. 2018;8(6):97.
Assari S, Hani N. Household income and children's unmet dental care need; Blacks' diminished return. Dent J (Basel). 2018;6(2):17.
Assari S, Caldwell CH, Mincy RB. Maternal educational attainment at birth promotes future self-rated health of white but not black youth: A 15-year cohort of a national sample. J Clin Med. 2018;7(5):93.
Assari S, Thomas A, Caldwell CH, Mincy RB. Blacks' diminished health return of family structure and socioeconomic status; 15 years of follow-up of a national urban sample of youth. J Urban Health. 2018;95(1):21–35.
doi: 10.1007/s11524-017-0217-3
pubmed: 29230628
Perng W, Rifas-Shiman SL, Hivert M-F, Chavarro JE, Sordillo J, Oken E. Metabolic trajectories across early adolescence: differences by sex, weight, pubertal status and race/ethnicity. Ann Hum Biol. 2019;46(3):205–14.
pubmed: 31264447
pmcid: 6960375
doi: 10.1080/03014460.2019.1638967
Alcohol Research: Current Reviews Editorial S. NIH’s Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Alcohol Res. 2018;39(1):97.
Casey BJ, Cannonier T, Conley MI, Cohen AO, Barch DM, Heitzeg MM, et al. The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study: imaging acquisition across 21 sites. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:43–54.
pubmed: 29567376
pmcid: 5999559
doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.03.001
Karcher NR, O’Brien KJ, Kandala S, Barch DM. Resting-state functional connectivity and psychotic-like experiences in childhood: results from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study. Biol Psychiatry. 2019;86(1):7–15.
pubmed: 30850130
pmcid: 6588441
doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.01.013
Lisdahl KM, Sher KJ, Conway KP, Gonzalez R, Feldstein Ewing SW, Nixon SJ, et al. Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study: overview of substance use assessment methods. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:80–96.
pubmed: 29559216
pmcid: 6375310
doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.02.007
Luciana M, Bjork JM, Nagel BJ, Barch DM, Gonzalez R, Nixon SJ, et al. Adolescent neurocognitive development and impacts of substance use: overview of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) baseline neurocognition battery. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:67–79.
pubmed: 29525452
pmcid: 6039970
doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.02.006
Auchter AM, Hernandez Mejia M, Heyser CJ, Shilling PD, Jernigan TL, Brown SA, et al. A description of the ABCD organizational structure and communication framework. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:8–15.
pubmed: 29706313
pmcid: 6462277
doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.04.003
Garavan H, Bartsch H, Conway K, Decastro A, Goldstein RZ, Heeringa S, et al. Recruiting the ABCD sample: design considerations and procedures. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2018;32:16–22.
pubmed: 29703560
pmcid: 6314286
doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.04.004
Assari S, Caldwell CH. High risk of depression in high-income African American Boys. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2018;5(4):808–19.
pubmed: 28842841
doi: 10.1007/s40615-017-0426-1
Shervin A. Parental education and spanking of American children: Blacks’ Diminished Returns. World journal of educational research (Los Angeles, Calif). 2020;8(2).
Assari S, Boyce S, Bazargan M, Caldwell CH, Mincy R. Maternal education at birth and youth breakfast consumption at age 15: Blacks’ Diminished Returns. J-Multidiscip Sci J. 2020;3(3):313–23.
Assari S. Family income reduces risk of obesity for white but not black children. Children (Basel). 2018;5(6):73.
Assari S, Boyce S, Bazargan M, Mincy R, Caldwell CH. Unequal protective effects of parental educational attainment on the body mass index of Black and White youth. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(19):3641.
pubmed: 31569829
pmcid: 6801712
doi: 10.3390/ijerph16193641
Assari S, Malek-Ahmadi MR, Caldwell CH. Parental education or household income? Which socioeconomic status indicator can better reduce body mass index disparities among Latino children? J Econ Public Financ. 2021;7(1):19–37.
pubmed: 34307868
doi: 10.22158/jepf.v7n1p19
Assari S. Education attainment and obesity: differential returns based on sexual orientation. Behav Sci (Basel). 2019;9(2):16.
Assari S, Farokhnia M, Mistry R. Education attainment and alcohol binge drinking: diminished returns of Hispanics in Los Angeles. Behav Sci (Basel). 2019;9(1):9.
Bell CN, Sacks TK, Thomas Tobin CS, Thorpe RJ Jr. Racial non-equivalence of socioeconomic status and self-rated health among African Americans and Whites. SSM Popul Health. 2020;10:100561.
pubmed: 32140544
pmcid: 7049651
doi: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100561
Hudson D, Sacks T, Irani K, Asher A. The price of the ticket: health costs of upward mobility among African Americans. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(4):1179.
Hudson DL, Neighbors HW, Geronimus AT, Jackson JS. The relationship between socioeconomic position and depression among a US nationally representative sample of African Americans. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2012;47(3):373–81.
pubmed: 21293845
doi: 10.1007/s00127-011-0348-x
Ohkubo T, Hozawa A, Nagaie K, Kikuya M, Tsujia I, Itoc S, et al. Prediction of stroke by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring versus screening blood pressure measurements in a general population: the Ohasama study. J Hypertens. 2000;18(7):847–54.
pubmed: 10930181
doi: 10.1097/00004872-200018070-00005
Nielsen GA, Andersen LB. The association between high blood pressure, physical fitness, and body mass index in adolescents. Prev Med. 2003;36(2):229–34.
pubmed: 12590998
doi: 10.1016/S0091-7435(02)00017-8
He Q, Ding ZY, Fong DY-T, Karlberg J. Blood pressure is associated with body mass index in both normal and obese children. Hypertension. 2000;36(2):165–70.
pubmed: 10948072
doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.36.2.165
Flores-Huerta S, Klünder-Klünder M, de la Cruz LR, Santos JI. Increase in body mass index and waist circumference is associated with high blood pressure in children and adolescents in Mexico City. Arch Med Res. 2009;40(3):208–15.
pubmed: 19427973
doi: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2009.02.009
Grassi G, Seravalle G, Dell’Oro R, Turri C, Bolla GB, Mancia G. Adrenergic and reflex abnormalities in obesity-related hypertension. Hypertension. 2000;36(4):538–42.
pubmed: 11040232
doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.36.4.538
Hall JE, Brands MW, Henegar JR. Mechanisms of hypertension and kidney disease in obesity. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;892(1):91–107.
pubmed: 10842655
doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb07788.x
Sharma AM. Is there a rationale for angiotensin blockade in the management of obesity hypertension? Hypertension. 2004;44(1):12–9.
pubmed: 15173127
doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000132568.71409.a2
Rahmouni K, Correia ML, Haynes WG, Mark AL. Obesity-associated hypertension: new insights into mechanisms. Hypertension. 2005;45(1):9–14.
pubmed: 15583075
doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000151325.83008.b4
Rasouli N, Kern PA. Adipocytokines and the metabolic complications of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(11_supplement_1):s64–73.
pubmed: 18987272
pmcid: 2585759
doi: 10.1210/jc.2008-1613
Yiannikouris F, Gupte M, Putnam K, Cassis L. Adipokines and blood pressure control. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2010;19(2):195–200.
pubmed: 20051852
pmcid: 3326655
doi: 10.1097/MNH.0b013e3283366cd0
Sironi AM, Gastaldelli A, Mari A, Ciociaro D, Postano V, Buzzigoli E, et al. Visceral fat in hypertension: influence on insulin resistance and β-cell function. Hypertension. 2004;44(2):127–33.
pubmed: 15262911
doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000137982.10191.0a
Soleimani M. Insulin resistance and hypertension: new insights. Kidney Int. 2015;87(3):497–9.
pubmed: 25723632
doi: 10.1038/ki.2014.392
Nakamura M, Yamazaki O, Shirai A, Horita S, Satoh N, Suzuki M, et al. Preserved Na/HCO3 cotransporter sensitivity to insulin may promote hypertension in metabolic syndrome. Kidney Int. 2015;87(3):535–42.
pubmed: 25354240
doi: 10.1038/ki.2014.351
Assari S, Boyce S, Bazargan M, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman MA. Place-based diminished returns of parental educational attainment on school performance of Non-Hispanic white youth. Front Educ (Lausanne). 2020;5:30.
Boyce S, Bazargan M, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman MA, Assari S. Parental educational attainment and social environmental of urban public schools in the U.S.: Blacks' diminished returns. Children (Basel). 2020;7(5):44.
Assari S, Boyce S, Bazargan M, Caldwell CH. Mathematical performance of American youth: diminished returns of educational attainment of Asian-American parents. Educ Sci. 2020;10(2):32.
doi: 10.3390/educsci10020032
Assari S, Caldwell CH, Bazargan M. Association between parental educational attainment and youth outcomes and role of race/ethnicity. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1916018.
pubmed: 31755951
pmcid: 6902825
doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.16018
Assari S. Unequal gain of equal resources across racial groups. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2018;7(1):1–9.
pubmed: 29325397
doi: 10.15171/ijhpm.2017.90
Bartik TJ, Hershbein BJ. Degrees of poverty: the relationship between family income background and the returns to education. Upjohn Institute Working Paper. 2018. No. 18-284
Thomas A, Caldwell CH, Assari S, Jagers RJ, Flay B. You do what you see: how witnessing physical violence is linked to violent behavior among male African American adolescents. J Men’s Stud. 2016;24(2):185–207.
doi: 10.1177/1060826516641104
Boelens M, Windhorst DA, Jonkman H, Hosman CMH, Raat H, Jansen W. Evaluation of the promising neighbourhoods community program to reduce health inequalities in youth: a protocol of a mixed-methods study. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):555.
pubmed: 31088433
pmcid: 6515662
doi: 10.1186/s12889-019-6901-3
Bowden M, Bartkowski J, Xu X, Lewis R Jr. Parental occupation and the gender math gap: Examining the social reproduction of academic advantage among elementary and middle school students. Soc Sci. 2017;7(1):6.
doi: 10.3390/socsci7010006
Chetty R, Hendren N, Kline P, Saez E. Where is the land of opportunity? The geography of intergenerational mobility in the United States. Q J Econ. 2014;129(4):1553–623.
doi: 10.1093/qje/qju022
Assari S, Bazargan M. Educational attainment and subjective health and well-being; diminished returns of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Behav Sci. 2019;9(9):90.
pubmed: 31443340
pmcid: 6770696
doi: 10.3390/bs9090090
Assari S. Socioeconomic status and self-rated oral health; Diminished return among Hispanic Whites. Dent J (Basel). 2018;6(2):11.
Assari S. Socioeconomic determinants of systolic blood pressure; Minorities’ Diminished Returns. J Health Econ Dev. 2019;1(1):1–11.
pubmed: 32195481