Autoimmune liver diseases and diabetes.
Humans
Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
/ complications
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2
/ complications
Liver Cirrhosis, Biliary
/ etiology
Cholangitis, Sclerosing
/ complications
Liver Diseases
/ diagnosis
Autoimmune Diseases
/ complications
Hepatitis, Autoimmune
/ complications
Chronic Disease
Liver Cirrhosis
/ complications
Glucose
Liver
Journal
European journal of gastroenterology & hepatology
ISSN: 1473-5687
Titre abrégé: Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol
Pays: England
ID NLM: 9000874
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
01 09 2023
01 09 2023
Historique:
medline:
31
7
2023
pubmed:
28
7
2023
entrez:
28
7
2023
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Autoimmune liver diseases include autoimmune hepatitis, primary biliary cholangitis, and primary sclerosing cholangitis. They are chronic, heterogenous diseases affecting the liver which is a key metabolic organ that ensures glucose homeostasis. It is well known that patients with other chronic liver diseases such as cirrhosis and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) display glucose disturbances like insulin resistance and have an increased risk of diabetes. Previous evidence on glucose disturbances in patients with autoimmune liver disease is scarce but does point towards a potentially increased risk of type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. The underlying mechanisms are unknown but may reflect genetic predisposition, concurrent NAFLD and or cirrhosis development, and treatment (steroid) related impairment of glucose homeostasis. Therefore, increased awareness and surveillance of diabetes development in patients with autoimmune liver disease may be important. Overall, detection and treatment of diabetes generally follow the usual diabetes guidelines; however, in patients with advanced liver cirrhosis, HbA1c may not be a reliable marker of average glucose levels, and treatment with insulin is generally recommended. In addition, it has recently been suggested that sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors may be beneficial in treating refractory ascites. Further research on diabetes risk in autoimmune liver disease is warranted.
Identifiants
pubmed: 37505973
doi: 10.1097/MEG.0000000000002594
pii: 00042737-202309000-00002
doi:
Substances chimiques
Glucose
IY9XDZ35W2
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
938-947Informations de copyright
Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
Références
Petersen MC, Vatner DF, Shulman GI. Regulation of hepatic glucose metabolism in health and disease. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2017; 13:572–587.
Goral V, Atalay R, Kucukoner M. Insulin resistance in liver cirrhosis. Hepatogastroenterology 2010; 57:309–315.
Goswami A, Bhargava N, Dadhich S, Kulamarva G. Insulin resistance in euglycemic cirrhosis. Ann Gastroenterol 2014; 27:237–243.
Lee WG, Wells CI, McCall JL, Murphy R, Plank LD. Prevalence of diabetes in liver cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2019; 35:e3157.
Sberna AL, Bouillet B, Rouland A, Brindisi MC, Nguyen A, Mouillot T, et al. European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL), European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and European Association for the Study of Obesity (EASO) clinical practice recommendations for the management of non-alcoholic fatty liver diseas. Diabet Med 2018; 35:368–375.
Cosentino F, Grant PJ, Aboyans V, Bailey CJ, Ceriello A, Delgado V, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2019 ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD. Eur Heart J 2020; 41:255–323.
Pasquel FJ, Lansang MC, Dhatariya K, Umpierrez GE. Management of diabetes and hyperglycaemia in the hospital. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2021; 9:174–188.
Ormazabal V, Nair S, Elfeky O, Aguayo C, Salomon C, Zuñiga FA. Association between insulin resistance and the development of cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2018; 17:122.
van den Brand FF, van der Veen KS, de Boer YS, van Gerven NM, Lissenberg-Witte BI, Beuers U, et al.; Dutch Autoimmune Hepatitis Study Group. Increased mortality among patients with vs without cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 17:940–947.e2.
Aune D, Sen A, Norat T, Riboli E, Folseraas T. Primary sclerosing cholangitis and the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10646.
Kessler WR, Cummings OW, Eckert G, Chalasani N, Lumeng L, Kwo PY. Fulminant hepatic failure as the initial presentation of acute autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 2:625–631.
Trivedi PJ, Hirschfield GM. Recent advances in clinical practice: epidemiology of autoimmune liver diseases. Gut 2021; 70:1989–2003.
Lohse AW, Chazouillères O, Dalekos G, Drenth J, Heneghan M, Hofer H, et al. EASL clinical practice guidelines: autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2015; 63:971–1004.
Hirschfield GM, Beuers U, Corpechot C, Invernizzi P, Jones D, Marzioni M, et al. EASL clinical practice guidelines: the diagnosis and management of patients with primary biliary cholangitis. J Hepatol 2017; 67:145–172.
Chapman MH, Thorburn D, Hirschfield GM, Webster GGJ, Rushbrook SM, Alexander G, et al. British Society of Gastroenterology and UK-PSC guidelines for the diagnosis and management of primary sclerosing cholangitis. Gut 2019; 68:1356–1378.
Wong GW, Heneghan MA. Association of extrahepatic manifestations with autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis 2015; 33:25–35.
Teufel A, Weinmann A, Kahaly GJ, Centner C, Piendl A, Wörns M, et al. Concurrent autoimmune diseases in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2010; 44:208–213.
Mobasseri M, Shirmohammadi M, Amiri T, Vahed N, Hosseini Fard H, Ghojazadeh M. Prevalence and incidence of type 1 diabetes in the world: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Heal Promot Perspect 2020; 10:98–115.
Gregory GA, Robinson TIG, Linklater SE, Wang F, Colagiuri S, de Beaufort C, et al.; International Diabetes Federation Diabetes Atlas Type 1 Diabetes in Adults Special Interest Group. Global incidence, prevalence, and mortality of type 1 diabetes in 2021 with projection to 2040: a modelling study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2022; 10:741–760.
de Sousa G, Prinz N, Becker M, Dürr R, Faller U, Meraner D, et al. Diabetes mellitus and autoimmune hepatitis: demographical and clinical description of a relatively rare phenotype. Horm Metab Res 2018; 50:568–574.
Theofilopoulos AN, Kono DH, Baccala R. The multiple pathways to autoimmunity. Nat Immunol 2017; 18:716–724.
Trowsdale J, Knight JC. Major histocompatibility complex genomics and human disease. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet 2013; 14:301–323.
Regnell SE, Lernmark A. Early prediction of autoimmune (type 1) diabetes. Diabetologia 2017; 60:1370–1381.
Erlich H, Valdes AM, Noble J, Carlson JA, Varney M, Concannon P, et al.; Type 1 Diabetes Genetics Consortium. HLA DR-DQ haplotypes and genotypes and type 1 diabetes risk. Diabetes 2008; 57:1084–1092.
Floreani A, Restrepo-Jiménez P, Secchi MF, De Martin S, Leung PSC, Krawitt E, et al. Etiopathogenesis of autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmun 2018; 95:133–143.
Higuchi T, Oka S, Furukawa H, Tohma S, Yatsuhashi H, Migita K. Genetic risk factors for autoimmune hepatitis: implications for phenotypic heterogeneity and biomarkers for drug response. Hum Genomics 2021; 15:6.
Mells GF, Kaser A, Karlsen TH. Novel insights into autoimmune liver diseases provided by genome-wide association studies. J Autoimmun 2013; 46:41–54.
de Boer YS, van Gerven NMF, Zwiers A, Verwer BJ, van Hoek B, van Erpecum KJ, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies variants associated with autoimmune hepatitis type 1. Gastroenterology 2014; 147:443–452.e5.
Cruz-Tapias P, Pérez-Fernández OM, Rojas-Villarraga A, Rodríguez-Rodríguez A, Arango M-T, Anaya J-M. Shared HLA class II in six autoimmune diseases in latin america: a meta-analysis. Autoimmune Dis 2012; 2012:1–10.
Pociot F, Akolkar B, Concannon P, Erlich HA, Julier C, Morahan G, et al. Genetics of type 1 diabetes: what’s next? Diabetes 2010; 59:1561–1571.
Mack CL, Adams D, Assis DN, Kerkar N, Manns MP, Mayo MJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis in adults and children: 2019 practice guidance and guidelines from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Hepatology 2020; 72:671–722.
Yoneyama K, Honda E, Kogo M, Kiuchi Y, Shibata M, Mitamura K, et al. Efficacy and safety of prednisolone in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Adv Ther 2006; 23:74–91.
Matsumoto N, Ogawa M, Matsuoka S, Moriyama M. Prevalence and risk factors of diabetes mellitus in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Intern Med 2016; 55:879–885.
Lüth S, Herkel J, Kanzler S, Frenzel C, Galle PR, Dienes HP, et al. Serologic markers compared with liver biopsy for monitoring disease activity in autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2008; 42:926–930.
Hartl J, Ehlken H, Sebode M, Peiseler M, Krech T, Zenouzi R, et al. Usefulness of biochemical remission and transient elastography in monitoring disease course in autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol 2018; 68:754–763.
Sigal SH, Sherman Z, Jesudian A. Clinical implications of thrombocytopenia for the cirrhotic patient. Hepatic Med Evid Res 2020; 12:49–60.
Liberal R, Grant CR. Cirrhosis and autoimmune liver disease: current understanding. World J Hepatol 2016; 8:1157–1168.
De Luca-Johnson J, Wangensteen KJ, Hanson J, Krawitt E, Wilcox R. Natural history of patients presenting with autoimmune hepatitis and coincident nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Dig Dis Sci 2016; 61:2710–2720.
Riazi K, Azhari H, Charette JH, Underwood FE, King JA, Afshar EE, et al. The prevalence and incidence of NAFLD worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2022; 7:851–861.
Dalekos GN, Gatselis NK, Zachou K, Koukoulis GK. NAFLD and autoimmune hepatitis: do not judge a book by its cover. Eur J Intern Med 2020; 75:1–9.
Portillo-Sanchez P, Bril F, Maximos M, Lomonaco R, Biernacki D, Orsak B, et al. High prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and normal plasma aminotransferase levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100:2231–2238.
Takahashi A, Arinaga-Hino T, Ohira H, Abe K, Torimura T, Zeniya M, et al.; Japan AIH Study Group (JAIHSG). Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. JGH Open 2018; 2:54–58.
Durazzo M, Niro G, Premoli A, Morello E, Rizzotto ER, Gambino R, et al. Type 1 autoimmune hepatitis and adipokines: new markers for activity and disease progression? J Gastroenterol 2009; 44:476–482.
Zhou P-Z, Zhu Y-M, Zou G-H, Sun Y-X, Xiu X-L, Huang X, et al. Relationship between glucocorticoids and insulin resistance in healthy individuals. Med Sci Monit 2016; 22:1887–1894.
Inzucchi SE, Bergenstal RM, Buse JB, Diamant M, Ferrannini E, Nauck M, et al.; American Diabetes Association (ADA). Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a patient-centered approach. Diabetes Care 2012; 35:1364–1379.
Cahn A, Miccoli R, Dardano A, Del Prato S. New forms of insulin and insulin therapies for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2015; 3:638–652.
Gangopadhyay K, Singh P. Consensus statement on dose modifications of antidiabetic agents in patients with hepatic impairment. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2017; 21:341.
Yen F-S, Hsu C-C, Wei JC-C, Hou M-C, Hwu C-M. Selection and warning of evidence-based antidiabetic medications for patients with chronic liver disease. Front Med 2022; 9:839456.
Scheen AJ. Pharmacokinetic and toxicological considerations for the treatment of diabetes in patients with liver disease. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2014; 10:839–857.
Hemminki K, Liu X, Försti A, Sundquist J, Sundquist K, Ji J. Subsequent type 2 diabetes in patients with autoimmune disease. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13871.
Manns MP, Woynarowski M, Kreisel W, Lurie Y, Rust C, Zuckerman E, et al.; European AIH-BUC-Study Group. Budesonide induces remission more effectively than prednisone in a controlled trial of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 2010; 139:1198–1206.
Woynarowski M, Nemeth A, Baruch Y, Koletzko S, Melter M, Rodeck B, et al.; European Autoimmune Hepatitis-Budesonide Study Group. Budesonide versus prednisone with azathioprine for the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in children and adolescents. J Pediatr 2013; 163:1347–53.e1.
Narayan KMV, Boyle JP, Thompson TJ, Gregg EW, Williamson DF. Effect of BMI on lifetime risk for diabetes in the U.S. Diabetes Care 2007; 30:1562–1566.
de Boer IH, Bangalore S, Benetos A, Davis AM, Michos ED, Muntner P, et al. Diabetes and hypertension: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2017; 40:1273–1284.
Díaz-González A, Hernández-Guerra M, Pérez-Medrano I, Sapena V, Riveiro-Barciela M, Barreira-Díaz A, et al.; ColHai Registry. Budesonide as first-line treatment in patients with autoimmune hepatitis seems inferior to standard predniso(lo)ne administration. Hepatology 2023; 77:1095–1105.
Liu Y, Han K, Liu C, Duan F, Cheng J, Yang S. Clinical characteristics and prognosis of concomitant primary biliary cholangitis and autoimmune diseases: a retrospective study. Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 2021:1–10.
Floreani A, Franceschet I, Cazzagon N, Spinazzè A, Buja A, Furlan P, et al. Extrahepatic autoimmune conditions associated with primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2015; 48:192–197.
Gershwin ME, Selmi C, Worman HJ, Gold EB, Watnik M, Utts J, et al.; USA PBC Epidemiology Group. Risk factors and comorbidities in primary biliary cirrhosis: a controlled interview-based study of 1032 patients. Hepatology 2005; 42:1194–1202.
Joshita S, Umemura T, Tanaka E, Ota M. Genetics and epigenetics in the pathogenesis of primary biliary cholangitis. Clin J Gastroenterol 2018; 11:11–18.
Donaldson PT, Baragiotta A, Heneghan MA, Floreani A, Venturi C, Underhill JA, et al. HLA class II alleles, genotypes, haplotypes, and amino acids in primary biliary cirrhosis: a large-scale study. Hepatology 2006; 44:667–674.
Onengut-Gumuscu S, Chen W-M, Burren O, Cooper NJ, Quinlan AR, Mychaleckyj JC, et al.; Type 1 Diabetes Genetics Consortium. Fine mapping of type 1 diabetes susceptibility loci and evidence for colocalization of causal variants with lymphoid gene enhancers. Nat Genet 2015; 47:381–386.
Katsuma S, Hirasawa A, Tsujimoto G. Bile acids promote glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion through TGR5 in a murine enteroendocrine cell line STC-1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 329:386–390.
Murakami M, Une N, Nishizawa M, Suzuki S, Ito H, Horiuchi T. Incretin secretion stimulated by ursodeoxycholic acid in healthy subjects. Springerplus 2013; 2:20.
Thomas C, Gioiello A, Noriega L, Strehle A, Oury J, Rizzo G, et al. TGR5-mediated bile acid sensing controls glucose homeostasis. Cell Metab 2009; 10:167–177.
Clarembeau F, Komuta M, Horsmans Y, Lanthier N. Impact of liver inflammation on whole body insulin resistance: a case report on primary biliary cholangitis. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2019; 82:536–538.
Liu X, Xu H, Zhan M, Niu J. The potential effects of diabetes mellitus on liver fibrosis in patients with primary biliary cholangitis. Med Sci Monit 2019; 25:6174–6180.
Paradis V, Perlemuter G, Bonvoust F, Dargere D, Parfait B, Vidaud M, et al. High glucose and hyperinsulinemia stimulate connective tissue growth factor expression: a potential mechanism involved in progression to fibrosis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Hepatology 2001; 34:738–744.
Tuleta I, Frangogiannis NG. Diabetic fibrosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2021; 1867:166044.
Bosch DE, Zen Y, Boukhar SA, Liu Y, Cheng L, Yeh MM. Hepatocellular carcinoma in primary sclerosing cholangitis and primary biliary cholangitis: a clinical and pathological study in an uncommon but emerging setting. Virchows Arch 2021; 479:1131–1143.
Rong G, Wang H, Bowlus CL, Wang C, Lu Y, Zeng Z, et al. Incidence and risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma in primary biliary cirrhosis. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2015; 48:132–141.
Tomiyama Y, Takenaka K, Kodama T, Kawanaka M, Sasaki K, Nishina S, et al. Risk factors for survival and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis. Intern Med 2013; 52:1553–1559.
Ludvigsson JF, Bergquist A, Montgomery SM, Bahmanyar S. Risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol 2014; 60:802–808.
Lamberts LE, Janse M, Haagsma EB, van den Berg AP, Weersma RK. Immune-mediated diseases in primary sclerosing cholangitis. Dig Liver Dis 2011; 43:802–806.
Saarinen S, Olerup O, Broome U. Increased frequency of autoimmune diseases in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95:3195–3199.
Karlsen TH, Schrumpf E, Boberg K-M. Genetic epidemiology of primary sclerosing cholangitis. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13:5421–5431.
Trivedi PJ, Hirschfield GM. The immunogenetics of autoimmune cholestasis. Clin Liver Dis 2016; 20:15–31.
Karlsen TH, Franke A, Melum E, Kaser A, Hov JR, Balschun T, et al. Genome-wide association analysis in primary sclerosing cholangitis. Gastroenterology 2010; 138:1102–1111.
Wiencke K, Karlsen TH, Boberg KM, Thorsby E, Schrumpf E, Lie BA, et al. Primary sclerosing cholangitis is associated with extended HLA-DR3 and HLA-DR6 haplotypes. Tissue Antigens 2007; 69:161–169.
Spurkland A, Saarinen S, Boberg KM, Mitchell S, Broome U, Caballeria L, et al. HLA class II haplotypes in primary sclerosing cholangitis patients from five European populations. Tissue Antigens 1999; 53:459–469.
Fründt T, Schröder N, Hölzemer A, Pinnschmidt H, de Heer J, Behrends BC, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of undiagnosed diabetes mellitus among gastroenterological patients: a HbA1c-based single center experience – prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes in gastroenterological patients. Z Gastroenterol 2022; 60:1306–1313.
Lindor KD, Kowdley KV, Luketic VAC, Harrison ME, McCashland T, Befeler AS, et al. High-dose ursodeoxycholic acid for the treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis. Hepatology 2009; 50:808–814.
Goode EC, Rushbrook SM. A review of the medical treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis in the 21st century. Ther Adv Chronic Dis 2016; 7:68–85.
Burisch J, Kiudelis G, Kupcinskas L, Kievit HAL, Andersen KW, Andersen V, et al.; Epi-IBD group. Natural disease course of Crohn’s disease during the first 5 years after diagnosis in a European population-based inception cohort: an Epi-IBD study. Gut 2019; 68:423–433.
Burisch J, Katsanos KH, Christodoulou DK, Barros L, Magro F, Pedersen N, et al. Natural disease course of ulcerative colitis during the first five years of follow-up in a European Population-based Inception Cohort – an Epi-IBD study. J Crohn’s Colitis 2019; 13:198–208.
ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, Bannuru RR, Brown FM, Bruemmer D, et al.; on behalf of the American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes – 2023. Diabetes Care 2023; 46:S19–S40.
Sacks DB. Hemoglobin A1c in diabetes: panacea or pointless? Diabetes 2013; 62:41–43.
Angeli P, Bernardi M, Villanueva C, Francoz C, Mookerjee RP, Trebicka J, et al. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines for the management of patients with decompensated cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2018; 69:1207–1460.
Scheiner B, Semmler G, Maurer F, Schwabl P, Bucsics TA, Paternostro R, et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for anaemia in patients with advanced chronic liver disease. Liver Int 2020; 40:194–204.
Gonzalez-Casas R, Jones EA, Moreno-Otero R. Spectrum of anemia associated with chronic liver disease. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15:4653–4658.
Starkman HS, Wacks M, Soeldner JS, Kim A. Effect of acute blood loss on glycosylated hemoglobin determinations in normal subjects. Diabetes Care 1983; 6:291–294.
Panzer S, Kronik G, Lechner K, Bettelheim P, Neumann E, Dudczak R. Glycosylated hemoglobins (GHb): an index of red cell survival. Blood 1982; 59:1348–1350.
Kiniwa N, Okumiya T, Tokuhiro S, Matsumura Y, Matsui H, Koga M. Hemolysis causes a decrease in HbA1c level but not in glycated albumin or 1,5-anhydroglucitol level. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2019; 79:377–380.
Galindo RJ, Beck RW, Scioscia MF, Umpierrez GE, Tuttle KR. Glycemic monitoring and management in advanced chronic kidney disease. Endocr Rev 2020; 41:756–774.
Ahmad J, Rafat D. HbA1c and iron deficiency: a review. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev 2013; 7:118–122.
Aydin B. Relationship between glycosylated hemoglobin and vitamin B12 deficiency anemia. North Clin Istanbul 2022; 9:459–463.
Pilla R, Palleti SK, Rayala R, Skss SR, Abdul Razzack A, Kalla S. Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) variations in nondiabetics with nutritional anemia. Cureus 2020; 12:e11479.
Barron CVM, Heenan HF, Thompson H, Chan H, Ngu J, Lunt H. Detecting dysglycaemia in compensated liver cirrhosis: comparison of oral glucose tolerance test and glycated haemoglobin, with continuous glucose monitoring. Diabet Med 2022; 39:e14778.
Sehrawat T, Jindal A, Kohli P, Thour A, Kaur J, Sachdev A, et al. Utility and limitations of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) in patients with liver cirrhosis as compared with oral glucose tolerance test for diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Ther 2018; 9:243–251.
Nadelson J, Satapathy SK, Nair S. Glycated hemoglobin levels in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Int J Endocrinol 2016; 2016:1–7.
Agrawal A, Parrott NR, Riad HN, Augustine T. Azathioprine-induced pure red cell aplasia: case report and review. Transplant Proc 2004; 36:2689–2691.
Committee ADAPP. 6. Glycemic targets: standards of medical care in diabetes – 2022. Diabetes Care 2022; 45:S83–S96.
Holt RIG, DeVries JH, Hess-Fischl A, Hirsch IB, Kirkman MS, Klupa T, et al. The management of type 1 diabetes in adults. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetologia 2021; 64:2609–2652.
Davies MJ, Aroda VR, Collins BS, Gabbay RA, Green J, Maruthur NM, et al. Management of hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes, 2022. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetologia 2022; 65:1925–1966.
Tolman KG, Fonseca V, Dalpiaz A, Tan MH. Spectrum of liver disease in type 2 diabetes and management of patients with diabetes and liver disease. Diabetes Care 2007; 30:734–743.
Alam S, Ghosh J, Mustafa G, Kamal M, Ahmad N. Effect of sitagliptin on hepatic histological activity and fibrosis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis patients: a 1-year randomized control trial. Hepatic Med Evid Res 2018; 10:23–31.
Yilmaz Y, Yonal O, Deyneli O, Celikel CA, Kalayci C, Duman DG. Effects of sitagliptin in diabetic patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2012; 75:240–244.
Macauley M, Hollingsworth KG, Smith FE, Thelwall PE, Al-Mrabeh A, Schweizer A, et al. Effect of vildagliptin on hepatic steatosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 100:1578–1585.
Newsome PN, Buchholtz K, Cusi K, Linder M, Okanoue T, Ratziu V, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of subcutaneous semaglutide in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. N Engl J Med 2021; 384:1113–1124.
Flint A, Andersen G, Hockings P, Johansson L, Morsing A, Sundby Palle M, et al. Randomised clinical trial: semaglutide versus placebo reduced liver steatosis but not liver stiffness in subjects with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2021; 54:1150–1161.
Elbekai R, Korashy H, El-Kadi A. The effect of liver cirrhosis on the regulation and expression of drug metabolizing enzymes. Curr Drug Metab 2004; 5:157–167.
Garcia-Martinez R, Caraceni P, Bernardi M, Gines P, Arroyo V, Jalan RA. Pathophysiologic basis of its role in the treatment of cirrhosis and its complications. Hepatology 2013; 58:1836–1846.
Lea-Henry TN, Carland JE, Stocker SL, Sevastos J, Roberts DM. Clinical pharmacokinetics in kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2018; 13:1085–1095.
Gao Y, Wei L, Zhang DD, Chen Y, Hou B. SGLT2 inhibitors: a new dawn for recurrent/refractory cirrhotic ascites. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2021; 000:000–000.
Saffo S, Taddei T. SGLT2 inhibitors and cirrhosis: a unique perspective on the comanagement of diabetes mellitus and ascites. Clin Liver Dis 2018; 11:141–144.
Miyamoto Y, Honda A, Yokose S, Nagata M, Miyamoto J. The effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on liver cirrhosis patients with refractory ascites: a literature review. J Clin Med 2023; 12:2253.
Montalvo-Gordon I, Chi-Cervera LA, García-Tsao G. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors ameliorate ascites and peripheral edema in patients with cirrhosis and diabetes. Hepatology 2020; 72:1880–1882.
Kalambokis GN, Tsiakas I, Filippas-Ntekuan S, Christaki M, Despotis G, Milionis H. Empagliflozin eliminates refractory ascites and hepatic hydrothorax in a patient with primary biliary cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2021; 116:618–619.
Miyamoto Y, Honda A, Yokose S, Nagata M, Miyamoto J. Weaning from concentrated ascites reinfusion therapy for refractory ascites by SGLT2 inhibitor. Clin Kidney J 2022; 15:831–833.
Vaduganathan M, Docherty KF, Claggett BL, Jhund PS, de Boer RA, Hernandez AF, et al. SGLT-2 inhibitors in patients with heart failure: a comprehensive meta-analysis of five randomised controlled trials. Lancet 2022; 400:757–767.
Zannad F, Ferreira JP, Pocock SJ, Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: a meta-analysis of the EMPEROR-Reduced and DAPA-HF trials. Lancet 2020; 396:819–829.
Heerspink HJL, Stefánsson BV, Correa-Rotter R, Chertow GM, Greene T, Hou F-F, et al.; DAPA-CKD Trial Committees and Investigators. Dapagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2020; 383:1436–1446.
Herrington WG, Staplin N, Wanner C, Green JB, Hauske SJ, Emberson JR, et al.; The EMPA-KIDNEY Collaborative Group. Empagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2023; 388:117–127.