Commercial weight-loss diets, greenhouse gas emissions and freshwater consumption.
climate change
commercial diets
greenhouse gas footprint
sustainable diets
water footprint
weight-loss diets
Journal
Journal of human nutrition and dietetics : the official journal of the British Dietetic Association
ISSN: 1365-277X
Titre abrégé: J Hum Nutr Diet
Pays: England
ID NLM: 8904840
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Dec 2023
Dec 2023
Historique:
revised:
31
08
2023
received:
31
01
2023
accepted:
20
09
2023
medline:
23
11
2023
pubmed:
23
10
2023
entrez:
23
10
2023
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Weight-loss attempts are widespread in the United States, with many using commercial weight-loss diet plans for guidance and support. Accordingly, dietary suggestions within these plans influence the nation's food-related environmental footprint. We modelled United States (US) per capita greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) and water footprints associated with seven commercial weight-loss diets, the US baseline, and selected other dietary patterns. We characterised consumption in commercial weight-loss diets both via modelling from provided guidelines and based on specific foods in 1-week meal plans. Cradle-to-farmgate GHGe and water footprints were assessed using a previously developed model. GHGe results were compared to the EAT-Lancet 2050 target. Water footprints were compared to the US baseline. Weight-loss diets had GHGe footprints on average 4.4 times the EAT-Lancet target recommended for planetary health (range: 2.4-8.5 times). Bovine meat was by far the largest contributor of GHGe in most diets that included it. Three commercial diets had water footprints above the US baseline. Low caloric intake in some diets compensated for the relative increases in GHGe- and water-intensive foods. Dietary patterns suggested by marketing materials and guidelines from commercial weight-loss diets can have high GHGe and water footprints, particularly if caloric limits are exceeded. Commercial diet plan guidance can be altered to support planetary and individual health, including describing what dietary patterns can jointly support environmental sustainability and weight loss.
Sections du résumé
BACKGROUND
BACKGROUND
Weight-loss attempts are widespread in the United States, with many using commercial weight-loss diet plans for guidance and support. Accordingly, dietary suggestions within these plans influence the nation's food-related environmental footprint.
METHODS
METHODS
We modelled United States (US) per capita greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) and water footprints associated with seven commercial weight-loss diets, the US baseline, and selected other dietary patterns. We characterised consumption in commercial weight-loss diets both via modelling from provided guidelines and based on specific foods in 1-week meal plans. Cradle-to-farmgate GHGe and water footprints were assessed using a previously developed model. GHGe results were compared to the EAT-Lancet 2050 target. Water footprints were compared to the US baseline.
RESULTS
RESULTS
Weight-loss diets had GHGe footprints on average 4.4 times the EAT-Lancet target recommended for planetary health (range: 2.4-8.5 times). Bovine meat was by far the largest contributor of GHGe in most diets that included it. Three commercial diets had water footprints above the US baseline. Low caloric intake in some diets compensated for the relative increases in GHGe- and water-intensive foods.
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
Dietary patterns suggested by marketing materials and guidelines from commercial weight-loss diets can have high GHGe and water footprints, particularly if caloric limits are exceeded. Commercial diet plan guidance can be altered to support planetary and individual health, including describing what dietary patterns can jointly support environmental sustainability and weight loss.
Substances chimiques
Greenhouse Gases
0
Water
059QF0KO0R
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
2268-2279Subventions
Organisme : Columbus Foundation
Informations de copyright
© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Dietetic Association.
Références
Martin CB, Herrick KA, Sarafrazi N, Ogden CL. Attempts to lose weight among adults in the United States, 2013-2016. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2018.
International Food Information Council. Food and health survey 2023. 2023.
Farrell E, Hollmann E, le Roux CW, Bustillo M, Nadglowski J, McGillicuddy D. The lived experience of patients with obesity: a systematic review and qualitative synthesis. Obes Rev. 2021;22(12):e13334.
Westbury S, Oyebode O, van Rens T, Barber TM. Obesity stigma: causes, consequences, and potential solutions. Curr Obes Rep. 2023;12(1):10-23.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Managing overweight and obesity in adults: systematic evidence review from the obesity expert panel, 2013.
Tate D, Lutes L, Bryant M. Efficacy of a commercial weight management program compared with a do-it-yourself approach: a randomized clinical trial (vol 5, e2226561, 2022). Jama Netw Open. 2022;5(9):e2226561.
Laudenslager M, Chaudhry ZW, Rajagopal S, Clynes S, Gudzune KA. Commercial weight loss programs in the management of obesity: an update. Curr Obes Rep. 2021;10:90-99.
Ahern AL, Breeze P, Fusco F, Sharp SJ, Islam N, Wheeler GM, et al. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of referral to a commercial open group behavioural weight management programme in adults with overweight and obesity: 5-year follow-up of the wrap randomised controlled trial. Lancet Public Health. 2022;7(10):e866-e875.
Lemstra M, Bird Y, Nwankwo C, Rogers M, Moraros J. Weight loss intervention adherence and factors promoting adherence: a meta-analysis. Patient Prefer Adher. 2016;10:1547-1559.
Jospe MR, Roy M, Brown RC, Haszard JJ, Meredith-Jones K, Fangupo LJ, et al. Intermittent fasting, paleolithic or Mediterranean diets in the real world: exploratory secondary analyses of a weight-loss trial that included choice of diet and exercise. Am J Clin Nutr. 2020;111(3):503-514.
Wing RR, Phelan S. Long-term weight loss maintenance. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82:222S-225SS.
Jovanovski N, Jaeger T. Demystifying ‘diet culture’: exploring the meaning of diet culture in online ‘anti-diet’ feminist, fat activist, and health professional communities. Womens Stud Int Forum. 2022;90:102558.
Han L, You D, Zeng F, Feng X, Astell-Burt T, Duan S, et al. Trends in self-perceived weight status, weight loss attempts, and weight loss strategies among adults in the united states, 1999-2016. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(11):e1915219.
Chen A, Eriksson G. The mythologization of protein: a multimodal critical discourse analysis of snacks packaging. Food Culture Soc. 2019;22(4):423-445.
Hartmann C, Siegrist M. Benefit beliefs about protein supplements: a comparative study of users and non-users. Appetite. 2016;103(1):229-235.
Semba RD, de Pee S, Kim B, McKenzie S, Nachman K, Bloem MW. Adoption of the ‘planetary health diet’ has different impacts on countries' greenhouse gas emissions. Nature Food. 2020;1:481-484.
Huang J, Liao LM, Weinstein SJ, Sinha R, Graubard BI, Albanes D. Association between plant and animal protein intake and overall and cause-specific mortality. JAMA Int Med. 2020;180(9):1173-1184.
Willett W, Rockström J, Loken B, Springmann M, Lang T, Vermeulen S, et al. Food in the anthropocene: the eat-lancet commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet. 2019;393(10191):447-492.
Naghshi S, Sadeghi O, Willett W, Esmaillzadeh A. Dietary intake of total, animal, and plant proteins and risk of all cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Br Med J. 2020;370:m2412.
Poore J, Nemecek T. Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers. Science. 2018;360(6392):987-992.
Gerber PJ, Steinfeld H, Henderson B, Mottet A, Opio C, Dijkman J, et al. Tackling climate change through livestock: a global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); 2013.
Bajželj B, Richards KS, Allwood JM, Smith P, Dennis JS, Curmi E, et al. Importance of food-demand management for climate mitigation. Nat Clim Change. 2014;4(10):924-929.
Springmann M, Clark M, Mason-D'croz D, Wiebe K, Bodirsky BL, Lassaletta L, et al. Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits. Nature. 2018;562(7728):519-525.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group III. Working Group III contribution to the IPCC sixth assessment report (ar6). 2021.
Kim BF, Santo RE, Scatterday AP, Fry JP, Synk CM, Cebron SR, et al. Country-specific dietary shifts to mitigate climate and water crises. Global Environ Change. 2019;370:101926.
González-García S, Esteve-Llorens X, Moreira MT, Feijoo G. Carbon footprint and nutritional quality of different human dietary choices. Sci Total Environ. 2018;644:77-94.
Kovacs B, Miller L, Heller MC, Rose D. The carbon footprint of dietary guidelines around the world: a seven country modeling study. Nutr J. 2021;20(1):15.
Rose D, Heller MC, Willits-Smith AM, Meyer RJ. Carbon footprint of self-selected us diets: nutritional, demographic, and behavioral correlates. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;109(3):526-534.
Hitaj C, Rehkamp S, Canning P, Peters CJ. Greenhouse gas emissions in the united states food system: current and healthy diet scenarios. Environ Sci Technol. 2019;53(9):5493-5503.
Huseinovic E, Ohlin M, Winkvist A, Bertz F, Sonesson U, Brekke HK. Does diet intervention in line with nutrition recommendations affect dietary carbon footprint? Results from a weight loss trial among lactating women. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2017;71(10):1241-1245.
Conrad Z, Drewnowski A, Belury MA, Love DC. Greenhouse gas emissions, cost, and diet quality of specific diet patterns in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;117(6):1186-1194.
Kling SMR, Roe LS, Keller KL, Rolls BJ. Double trouble: portion size and energy density combine to increase preschool children's lunch intake. Physiol Behav. 2016;162(August 2016):18-26.
Reinhardt SL, Boehm R, Blackstone NT, El-Abbadi NH, McNally Brandow JS, Taylor SF, et al. Systematic review of dietary patterns and sustainability in the United States. Adv Nutr. 2020;11(4):1016-1031.
Turner-McGrievy GM, Davidson CR, Wingard EE, Wilcox S, Frongillo EA. Comparative effectiveness of plant-based diets for weight loss: a randomized controlled trial of five different diets. Nutrition. 2015;31(2):350-358.
Wright N, Wilson L, Smith M, Duncan B, McHugh P. The broad study: a randomised controlled trial using a whole food plant-based diet in the community for obesity, ischaemic heart disease or diabetes. Nutr Diabetes. 2017;7(3):e256.
Jenkins DJ, Jones PJ, Abdullah MM, Lamarche B, Faulkner D, Patel D, et al. Low-carbohydrate vegan diets in diabetes for weight loss and sustainability: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2022;116(5):1240-1250.
Glenn AJ, Li J, Lo K, Jenkins DJA, Boucher BA, Hanley AJ, et al. The portfolio diet and incident type 2 diabetes: findings from the women's health initiative prospective cohort study. Diabetes Care. 2023;46(1):28-37.
Satija A, Malik V, Rimm EB, Sacks F, Willett W, Hu FB. Changes in intake of plant-based diets and weight change: results from 3 prospective cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;110(3):574-582.
Huang RY, Huang CC, Hu FB, Chavarro JE. Vegetarian diets and weight reduction: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Gen Intern Med. 2016;31(1):109-116.
Bach L, Jana B, Egwatu C, Orndorff C, Alanakrih R, Okoro J, et al. A sustainability analysis of environmental impact, nutritional quality, and price among six popular diets. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2023:7.
Kemaloglu M, Öner N, Soylu M. Environmental impacts and diet quality of popular diet models compared to turkey's national nutrition guidelines. Nutr Diet. 2022;80(2):183-191.
Cambeses-Franco C, González-García S, Feijoo G, Moreira MT. Is the paleo diet safe for health and the environment? Sci Total Environ. 2021;781:146717.
Dixon KA, Michelsen MK, Carpenter CL. Modern diets and the health of our planet: an investigation into the environmental impacts of food choices. Nutrients. 2023;15(3):692.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Faostat. 2020.
USDA. Nutrient profiles for food groups and subgroups in the 2015 USDA food patterns; 2015. Available from: https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/usda_food_patterns/NutrientProfiles.pdf
United States Department of Agriculture. USDA national nutrient database for standard reference legacy release. 2018.
United Nations. World population prospects; 2019.
Mekonnen MM, Hoekstra AY. Blue water footprint linked to national consumption and international trade is unsustainable. Nature Food. 2020;1:792-800.
Overview of the $58 billion U.S. Weight loss market 2022. [press release] [press release]. 2022.
NPD Group. US consumers' dietary goals are at odds with recommendations from health authorities [press release]. 2022.
IFIC. Food and health survey. 2018.
Sanchez-Sabate R, Sabaté J. Consumer attitudes towards environmental concerns of meat consumption: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(7):1220.
Neff RA, Edwards D, Palmer A, Ramsing R, Righter A, Wolfson J. Reducing meat consumption in the USA: a nationally representative survey of attitudes and behaviours. Public Health Nutr. 2018;21(10):1835-1844.
Sievert K, Lawrence M, Parker C, Baker P. Understanding the political challenge of red and processed meat reduction for healthy and sustainable food systems: a narrative review of the literature. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2020;10(12):793-808.
Reynolds CJ, Horgan GW, Whybrow S, Macdiarmid JI. Healthy and sustainable diets that meet greenhouse gas emission reduction targets and are affordable for different income groups in the UK. Public Health Nutr. 2019;22(8):1503-1517.
Goulding T, Lindberg R, Russell CG. The affordability of a healthy and sustainable diet: an Australian case study. Nutr J. 2020;19(1):109.
Hirvonen K, Headey D, Masters WA. Affordability of the eat-lancet reference diet: a global analysis-the lancet global health. Lancet. 2020;8(1):e59-e66. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30447-4
Polleau A, Biermann G. Eat local to save the planet? Contrasting scientific evidence and consumers' perceptions of healthy and environmentally friendly diets. Curr Res Environ Sustain. 2021:3.
Godin L, Sahakian M. Cutting through conflicting prescriptions: how guidelines inform “healthy and sustainable” diets in Switzerland. Appetite. 2018;130:123-133.
Malik VS, Pan A, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(4):1084-1102.
Ramsing R, Santo R, Kim BF, Altema-Johnson D, Wooden A, Chang KB, et al. Dairy and plant-based milks: implications for nutrition and planetary health. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2023;10:291-302.
Conrad Z, Kowalski C, Dustin D, Johnson LK, McDowell A, Salesses M, et al. Quality of popular diet patterns in the United States: evaluating the effect of substitutions for foods high in added sugar, sodium, saturated fat, and refined grains. Curr Dev Nutr. 2022;6(9).
Beal T, Ortenzi F, Fanzo J. Estimated micronutrient shortfalls of the eat-lancet planetary health diet. Lancet Planet Health. 2023;7(3):e233-e237.
Tulloch AIT, Borthwick F, Bogueva D, Eltholth M, Grech A, Edgar D, et al. How the eat-lancet commission on food in the anthropocene influenced discourse and research on food systems: a systematic review covering the first 2 years post-publication. Lancet Global Health. 2023;11(7):e1125-e1136.
Zagmutt FJ, Pouzou JG, Costard S. The eat-lancet commission's dietary composition may not prevent noncommunicable disease mortality. J Nutr. 2020;150(5):985-988.
Halpern BS, Frazier M, Verstaen J, Rayner P-E, Clawson G, Blanchard JL, et al. The environmental footprint of global food production. Nature Sustain. 2022;5(12):1027-1039.
Song L, Cai H, Zhu T. Large-scale microanalysis of us household food carbon footprints and reduction potentials. Environ Sci Technol. 2021;55(22):15323-15332.
Gephart JA, Henriksson PJG, Parker RWR, Shepon A, Gorospe KD, Bergman K, et al. Environmental performance of blue foods. Nature. 2021;597:360-365.
Ritchie H, Reay DS, Higgins P. The impact of global dietary guidelines on climate change. Global Environ Change. 2018;49:46-55.
Blas A, Garrido A, Willaarts B. Evaluating the water footprint of the Mediterranean and American diets. Water. 2016;8(10):448.
Li M, Jia N, Lenzen M, Malik A, Wei L, Jin Y, et al. Global food-miles account for nearly 20% of total food-systems emissions. Nature Food. 2022;3(6):445-453.
Tubiello FN, Karl K, Flammini A, Gütschow J, Obli-Laryea G, Conchedda G, et al. Pre- and post-production processes increasingly dominate greenhouse gas emissions from agri-food systems. Earth Syst Sci Data. 2022;14(4):1795-1809.
Cusack DF, Kazanski CE, Hedgpeth A, Chow K, Cordeiro AL, Karpman J, et al. Reducing climate impacts of beef production: a synthesis of life cycle assessments across management systems and global regions. Global Change Biol. 2021;27:1721-1736.
Pelletier N, Pirog R, Rasmussen R. Comparative life cycle environmental impacts of three beef production strategies in the upper midwestern united states. Agricult Sys. 2010;103(6):380-389.
Garnett T, Godde C, Muller A, Röös E, Smith P, de Boer I, et al. Grazed and confused?: ruminating on cattle, grazing systems, methane, nitrous oxide, the soil carbon sequestration question-and what it all means for greenhouse gas emissions Oxford, UK: food Climate Research Network, Oxford Martin Programme on the Future of Food Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford; 2017.