Nervous System Response to Neurotrauma: A Narrative Review of Cerebrovascular and Cellular Changes After Neurotrauma.
Blood–brain barrier
Cerebrovascular autoregulation
Neuroinflammation
Neurotrauma
Traumatic brain injury
Journal
Journal of molecular neuroscience : MN
ISSN: 1559-1166
Titre abrégé: J Mol Neurosci
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 9002991
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
17 Feb 2024
17 Feb 2024
Historique:
received:
15
11
2023
accepted:
22
01
2024
medline:
17
2
2024
pubmed:
17
2
2024
entrez:
17
2
2024
Statut:
epublish
Résumé
Neurotrauma is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. For instance, traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes more than 30% of all injury-related deaths in the USA annually. The underlying cause and clinical sequela vary among cases. Patients are liable to both acute and chronic changes in the nervous system after such a type of injury. Cerebrovascular disruption has the most common and serious effect in such cases because cerebrovascular autoregulation, which is one of the main determinants of cerebral perfusion pressure, can be effaced in brain injuries even in the absence of evident vascular injury. Disruption of the blood-brain barrier regulatory function may also ensue whether due to direct injury to its structure or metabolic changes. Furthermore, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) can be affected leading to sympathetic hyperactivity in many patients. On a cellular scale, the neuroinflammatory cascade medicated by the glial cells gets triggered in response to TBI. Nevertheless, cellular and molecular reactions involved in cerebrovascular repair are not fully understood yet. Most studies were done on animals with many drawbacks in interpreting results. Therefore, future studies including human subjects are necessarily needed. This review will be of relevance to clinicians and researchers interested in understanding the underlying mechanisms in neurotrauma cases and the development of proper therapies as well as those with a general interest in the neurotrauma field.
Identifiants
pubmed: 38367075
doi: 10.1007/s12031-024-02193-8
pii: 10.1007/s12031-024-02193-8
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
22Informations de copyright
© 2024. The Author(s).
Références
Acharya D, Ruesch A, Schmitt S et al (2022) Changes in neurovascular coupling with cerebral perfusion pressure indicate a link to cerebral autoregulation. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow Metab 42:1247–1258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X221076566
doi: 10.1177/0271678X221076566
Adelson PD, Srinivas R, Chang Y et al (2011) Cerebrovascular response in children following severe traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst ChNS off J Int Soc Pediatr Neurosurg 27:1465–1476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-011-1476-z
doi: 10.1007/s00381-011-1476-z
Aghili-Mehrizi S, Williams E, Yan S et al (2022) Secondary mechanisms of neurotrauma: a closer look at the evidence. Diseases 10:30. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases10020030
doi: 10.3390/diseases10020030
pubmed: 35645251
pmcid: 9149951
Aleman M, Prange T (2019) Chapter 54 - Neurocranium and brain. In: Auer JA, Stick JA, Kümmerle JM, Prange T (eds) Equine Surgery, 5th edn. Saunders, W.B, pp 895–900
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-48420-6.00054-5
Amyot F, Kenney K, Spessert E et al (2019) Assessment of cerebrovascular dysfunction after traumatic brain injury with fMRI and fNIRS. NeuroImage Clin 25:102086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2019.102086
doi: 10.1016/j.nicl.2019.102086
pubmed: 31790877
pmcid: 6909332
Armstead WM (1997) Brain injury impairs ATP-sensitive K+ channel function in piglet cerebral arteries. Stroke 28:2273–2279; discussion 2280. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.28.11.2273
Baaklini CS, Rawji KS, Duncan GJ et al (2019) Central nervous system remyelination: roles of glia and innate immune cells. Front Mol Neurosci 12:225. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2019.00225
doi: 10.3389/fnmol.2019.00225
pubmed: 31616249
pmcid: 6764409
Bains M, Hall ED (2012) Antioxidant therapies in traumatic brain and spinal cord injury. Biochim Biophys Acta 1822:675–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.10.017
doi: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.10.017
pubmed: 22080976
Baker TL, Agoston DV, Brady RD et al (2022) Targeting the cerebrovascular system: next-generation biomarkers and treatment for mild traumatic brain injury. Neuroscientist 28:594–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/10738584211012264
doi: 10.1177/10738584211012264
pubmed: 33966527
Bence NF, Sampat RM, Kopito RR (2001) Impairment of the ubiquitin-proteasome system by protein aggregation. Science 292:1552–1555. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.292.5521.1552
doi: 10.1126/science.292.5521.1552
pubmed: 11375494
Benveniste H, Liu X, Koundal S et al (2019) The glymphatic system and waste clearance with brain aging: a review. Gerontology 65:106–119. https://doi.org/10.1159/000490349
doi: 10.1159/000490349
pubmed: 29996134
Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, Lee SM et al (2000) Dissociation of cerebral glucose metabolism and level of consciousness during the period of metabolic depression following human traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 17:389–401. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2000.17.389
doi: 10.1089/neu.2000.17.389
pubmed: 10833058
Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, McArthur DL et al (2001) Metabolic recovery following human traumatic brain injury based on FDG-PET: time course and relationship to neurological disability. J Head Trauma Rehabil 16:135–148. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001199-200104000-00004
doi: 10.1097/00001199-200104000-00004
pubmed: 11275575
Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, Shalmon E et al (1997) Cerebral hyperglycolysis following severe traumatic brain injury in humans: a positron emission tomography study. J Neurosurg 86:241–251. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1997.86.2.0241
doi: 10.3171/jns.1997.86.2.0241
pubmed: 9010426
Bernardi P (1996) The permeability transition pore. Control points of a cyclosporin A-sensitive mitochondrial channel involved in cell death. Biochim Biophys Acta 1275:5–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-2728(96)00041-2
doi: 10.1016/0005-2728(96)00041-2
pubmed: 8688451
Blaya MO, Raval AP, Bramlett HM (2022) Traumatic brain injury in women across lifespan. Neurobiol Dis 164:105613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105613
doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105613
pubmed: 34995753
Brown LS, Foster CG, Courtney J-M et al (2019) Pericytes and neurovascular function in the healthy and diseased brain. Front Cell Neurosci 13:282. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00282
doi: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00282
pubmed: 31316352
pmcid: 6611154
Cao SS, Kaufman RJ (2012) Unfolded Protein Response Curr Biol CB 22:R622–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.07.004
doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.07.004
pubmed: 22917505
Carvajal FJ, Mattison HA, Cerpa W (2016) Role of NMDA receptor-mediated glutamatergic signaling in chronic and acute neuropathologies. Neural Plast 2016:2701526. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2701526
doi: 10.1155/2016/2701526
pubmed: 27630777
pmcid: 5007376
Cash A, Theus MH (2020) Mechanisms of blood–brain barrier dysfunction in traumatic brain injury. Int J Mol Sci 21:3344. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21093344
doi: 10.3390/ijms21093344
pubmed: 32397302
pmcid: 7246537
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2013) CDC grand rounds: reducing severe traumatic brain injury in the United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 62:549–552
Charkviani M, Muradashvili N, Lominadze D (2019) Vascular and non-vascular contributors to memory reduction during traumatic brain injury. Eur J Neurosci 50:2860–2876. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.14390
doi: 10.1111/ejn.14390
pubmed: 30793398
pmcid: 6703968
Chen J-K, Johnston KM, Petrides M, Ptito A (2008) Recovery from mild head injury in sports: evidence from serial functional magnetic resonance imaging studies in male athletes. Clin J Sport Med 18:241–247. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e318170b59d
doi: 10.1097/JSM.0b013e318170b59d
pubmed: 18469565
Cheng G, Kong R, Zhang L, Zhang J (2012) Mitochondria in traumatic brain injury and mitochondrial-targeted multipotential therapeutic strategies: Mitochondria in traumatic brain injury. Br J Pharmacol 167:699–719. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02025.x
doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02025.x
pubmed: 23003569
pmcid: 3575772
Cheng J, Korte N, Nortley R et al (2018) Targeting pericytes for therapeutic approaches to neurological disorders. Acta Neuropathol (berl) 136:507–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-018-1893-0
doi: 10.1007/s00401-018-1893-0
pubmed: 30097696
Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Dikmen S et al (2018) A method of managing severe traumatic brain injury in the absence of intracranial pressure monitoring: the imaging and clinical examination protocol. J Neurotrauma 35:54–63. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2016.4472
doi: 10.1089/neu.2016.4472
pubmed: 28726590
pmcid: 5757082
Cho JG, Lee JH, Hong SH et al (2015) Tauroursodeoxycholic acid, a bile acid, promotes blood vessel repair by recruiting vasculogenic progenitor cells. Stem Cells Dayt Ohio 33:792–805. https://doi.org/10.1002/stem.1901
doi: 10.1002/stem.1901
Cifu DX, Diaz-Arrastia R, Williams RL et al (2015) The VA/DoD chronic effects of neurotrauma consortium: an overview at year 1. Fed Pract 32:44–48
pubmed: 30766083
pmcid: 6363325
Clark RSB, Schiding JK, Kaczorowski SL et al (1994) Neutrophil accumulation after traumatic brain injury in rats: comparison of weight drop and controlled cortical impact models. J Neurotrauma 11:499–506. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.1994.11.499
doi: 10.1089/neu.1994.11.499
pubmed: 7861443
Crain JM, Nikodemova M, Watters JJ (2013) Microglia express distinct M1 and M2 phenotypic markers in the postnatal and adult central nervous system in male and female mice: microglial gene expression in healthy brain. J Neurosci Res 91:1143–1151. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23242
doi: 10.1002/jnr.23242
pubmed: 23686747
pmcid: 3715560
da Silva Meirelles L, Simon D, Regner A (2017) Neurotrauma: the crosstalk between neurotrophins and inflammation in the acutely injured brain. Int J Mol Sci 18:1082. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18051082
doi: 10.3390/ijms18051082
pubmed: 28524074
pmcid: 5454991
Dalkara T, Gursoy-Ozdemir Y, Yemisci M (2011) Brain microvascular pericytes in health and disease. Acta Neuropathol (berl) 122:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-011-0847-6
doi: 10.1007/s00401-011-0847-6
pubmed: 21656168
Das AS, Vicenty-Padilla JC, Chua MMJ et al (2022) Cerebrovascular injuries in traumatic brain injury. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 223:107479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2022.107479
doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2022.107479
pubmed: 36308809
Dash PK, Hylin MJ, Hood KN et al (2015) Inhibition of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha phosphatase reduces tissue damage and improves learning and memory after experimental traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 32:1608–1620. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3772
doi: 10.1089/neu.2014.3772
pubmed: 25843479
pmcid: 4593880
De Biase LM, Bonci A (2019) Region-specific phenotypes of microglia: the role of local regulatory cues. Neuroscientist 25:314–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858418800996
doi: 10.1177/1073858418800996
pubmed: 30280638
Dennis EL, Baron D, Bartnik-Olson B et al (2022) ENIGMA brain injury: framework, challenges, and opportunities. Hum Brain Mapp 43:149–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25046
doi: 10.1002/hbm.25046
pubmed: 32476212
Dewan MC, Rattani A, Gupta S et al (2018) Estimating the global incidence of traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 130:1080–1097. https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.10.JNS17352
doi: 10.3171/2017.10.JNS17352
pubmed: 29701556
DeWitt DS, Prough DS (2003) Traumatic cerebral vascular injury: the effects of concussive brain injury on the cerebral vasculature. J Neurotrauma 20:795–825. https://doi.org/10.1089/089771503322385755
doi: 10.1089/089771503322385755
pubmed: 14577860
Donnelly N, Gorman AM, Gupta S, Samali A (2013) The eIF2α kinases: their structures and functions. Cell Mol Life Sci CMLS 70:3493–3511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-012-1252-6
doi: 10.1007/s00018-012-1252-6
pubmed: 23354059
Drieu A, Lanquetin A, Prunotto P et al (2022) Persistent neuroinflammation and behavioural deficits after single mild traumatic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 42:2216–2229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X221119288
doi: 10.1177/0271678X221119288
pubmed: 35945692
pmcid: 9670002
Duff TA, Scott G, Feilbach JA (1986) Ultrastructural evidence of arterial denervation following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 64:292–297. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1986.64.2.0292
doi: 10.3171/jns.1986.64.2.0292
pubmed: 3944639
Edwards KA, Pattinson CL, Guedes VA et al (2020) Inflammatory cytokines associate with neuroimaging after acute mild traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 11:348. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00348
doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00348
pubmed: 32508732
pmcid: 7248260
Engel S, Schluesener H, Mittelbronn M et al (2000) Dynamics of microglial activation after human traumatic brain injury are revealed by delayed expression of macrophage-related proteins MRP8 and MRP14. Acta Neuropathol (berl) 100:313–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004019900172
doi: 10.1007/s004019900172
pubmed: 10965802
Estell K (2021) Acute central nervous system trauma in the field. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 37:245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2021.04.001
doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2021.04.001
pubmed: 34119403
Esterov D, Greenwald BD (2017) Autonomic dysfunction after mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Sci 7:100. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7080100
doi: 10.3390/brainsci7080100
pubmed: 28800081
pmcid: 5575620
Fernandez-Ortega JF, Prieto-Palomino MA, Garcia-Caballero M et al (2012) Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity after traumatic brain injury: clinical and prognostic implications. J Neurotrauma 29:1364–1370. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2033
doi: 10.1089/neu.2011.2033
pubmed: 22150061
Franklin RJM, Kotter MR (2008) The biology of CNS remyelination: the key to therapeutic advances. J Neurol 255:19–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-008-1004-6
doi: 10.1007/s00415-008-1004-6
pubmed: 18317673
Frisvold S, Coppola S, Ehrmann S et al (2023) Respiratory challenges and ventilatory management in different types of acute brain-injured patients. Crit Care 27:247. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-023-04532-4
doi: 10.1186/s13054-023-04532-4
pubmed: 37353832
pmcid: 10290317
Fujita M, Wei EP, Povlishock JT (2012) Intensity- and interval-specific repetitive traumatic brain injury can evoke both axonal and microvascular damage. J Neurotrauma 29:2172–2180. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2012.2357
doi: 10.1089/neu.2012.2357
pubmed: 22559115
pmcid: 3419839
Gao G, Wu X, Feng J et al (2020) Clinical characteristics and outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury in China: a prospective, multicentre, longitudinal, observational study. Lancet Neurol 19:670–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30182-4
doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30182-4
pubmed: 32702336
GBD 2016 Neurology Collaborators (2019) Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol 18:459–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30499-X
doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30499-X
Ghosh A, Highton D, Kolyva C et al (2017) Hyperoxia results in increased aerobic metabolism following acute brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow Metab 37:2910–2920. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X16679171
doi: 10.1177/0271678X16679171
Giorgi C, Baldassari F, Bononi A et al (2012) Mitochondrial Ca(2+) and apoptosis. Cell Calcium 52:36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2012.02.008
doi: 10.1016/j.ceca.2012.02.008
pubmed: 22480931
pmcid: 3396846
Giza CC, Hovda DA (2001) The neurometabolic cascade of concussion. J Athl Train 36:228–235
pubmed: 12937489
pmcid: 155411
Gleason CA, Hohimer AR, Back SA (2012) Developmental physiology of the central nervous system. In: Avery’s Diseases of the Newborn, Elsevier, pp 811–815
Golding E (2002) Sequelae following traumatic brain injury the cerebrovascular perspective. Brain Res Rev 38:377–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0173(02)00141-8
doi: 10.1016/S0165-0173(02)00141-8
pubmed: 11890983
Golding EM, Contant CF, Robertson CS, Bryan RM (1998) Temporal effect of severe controlled cortical impact injury in the rat on the myogenic response of the middle cerebral artery. J Neurotrauma 15:973–984. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.1998.15.973
doi: 10.1089/neu.1998.15.973
pubmed: 9840770
Gosselin N, Bottari C, Chen J-K et al (2011) Electrophysiology and functional MRI in post-acute mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 28:329–341. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2010.1493
doi: 10.1089/neu.2010.1493
pubmed: 21309680
Greco T, Vespa PM, Prins ML (2020) Alternative substrate metabolism depends on cerebral metabolic state following traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol 329:113289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113289
doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2020.113289
pubmed: 32247790
pmcid: 8168752
Gupte R, Brooks W, Vukas R et al (2019) Sex differences in traumatic brain injury: what we know and what we should know. J Neurotrauma 36:3063–3091. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2018.6171
doi: 10.1089/neu.2018.6171
pubmed: 30794028
pmcid: 6818488
Halestrap AP, Connern CP, Griffiths EJ, Kerr PM (1997) Cyclosporin A binding to mitochondrial cyclophilin inhibits the permeability transition pore and protects hearts from ischaemia/reperfusion injury. Mol Cell Biochem 174:167–172
doi: 10.1023/A:1006879618176
pubmed: 9309682
Hawryluk GWJ, Rubiano AM, Totten AM et al (2020) Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury: 2020 update of the decompressive craniectomy recommendations. Neurosurgery 87:427–434. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyaa278
doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyaa278
pubmed: 32761068
pmcid: 7426189
Hay JR, Johnson VE, Young AMH et al (2015) Blood-brain barrier disruption is an early event that may persist for many years after traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 74:1147–1157. https://doi.org/10.1097/NEN.0000000000000261
doi: 10.1097/NEN.0000000000000261
pubmed: 26574669
Hill-Felberg SJ, McIntosh TK, Oliver DL et al (1999) Concurrent loss and proliferation of astrocytes following lateral fluid percussion brain injury in the adult rat. J Neurosci Res 57:271–279. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4547(19990715)57:2%3c271::AID-JNR13%3e3.0.CO;2-Z
doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4547(19990715)57:2<271::AID-JNR13>3.0.CO;2-Z
pubmed: 10398305
Holmin S, Söderlund J, Biberfeld P, Mathiesen T (1998) Intracerebral inflammation after human brain contusion. Neurosurgery 42:291–298; discussion 298–299. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006123-199802000-00047
Hood KN, Zhao J, Redell JB et al (2018) Endoplasmic reticulum stress contributes to the loss of newborn hippocampal neurons after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci off J Soc Neurosci 38:2372–2384. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1756-17.2018
doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1756-17.2018
Horton L, Rhodes J, Wilson L (2018) Randomized controlled trials in adult traumatic brain injury: a systematic review on the use and reporting of clinical outcome assessments. J Neurotrauma 35:2005–2014. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2018.5648
doi: 10.1089/neu.2018.5648
pubmed: 29648972
Huebner EA, Strittmatter SM (2009) Axon regeneration in the peripheral and central nervous systems. In: Koenig E (ed) Cell biology of the axon. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 305–360
doi: 10.1007/400_2009_19
Hussain R, Tithof J, Wang W et al (2023) Potentiating glymphatic drainage minimizes post-traumatic cerebral oedema. Nature 623:992–1000. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06737-7
doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-06737-7
pubmed: 37968397
Imai Y, Soda M, Inoue H et al (2001) An unfolded putative transmembrane polypeptide, which can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress, is a substrate of Parkin. Cell 105:891–902. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00407-x
doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00407-x
pubmed: 11439185
Ismail H, Shakkour Z, Tabet M et al (2020) Traumatic brain injury: oxidative stress and novel anti-oxidants such as mitoquinone and edaravone. Antioxid Basel Switz 9:943. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9100943
doi: 10.3390/antiox9100943
Iurlaro R, Muñoz-Pinedo C (2016) Cell death induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress. FEBS J 283:2640–2652. https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.13598
doi: 10.1111/febs.13598
pubmed: 26587781
Jaganjac M, Milkovic L, Zarkovic N, Zarkovic K (2022) Oxidative stress and regeneration. Free Radic Biol Med 181:154–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.02.004
doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.02.004
pubmed: 35149216
Jullienne A, Obenaus A, Ichkova A et al (2016) Chronic cerebrovascular dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: cerebrovascular dysfunction after TBI. J Neurosci Res 94:609–622. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23732
doi: 10.1002/jnr.23732
pubmed: 27117494
pmcid: 5415378
Kahn MA, De Vellis J (1995) Chapter 13 Growth factors in the CNS and their effects on oligodendroglia. In: Progress in brain research. Elsevier, pp 145–169
Keating CE, Cullen DK (2021) Mechanosensation in traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol Dis 148:105210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105210
doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105210
pubmed: 33259894
Kenney K, Amyot F, Haber M et al (2016) Cerebral vascular injury in traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol 275:353–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.05.019
doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.05.019
pubmed: 26048614
Kettenmann H, Kirchhoff F, Verkhratsky A (2013) Microglia: new roles for the synaptic stripper. Neuron 77:10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.12.023
doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.12.023
pubmed: 23312512
Kreipke CW, Rafols JA (2009) Calponin control of cerebrovascular reactivity: therapeutic implications in brain trauma. J Cell Mol Med 13:262–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00508.x
doi: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00508.x
pubmed: 19278456
Krejza J, Arkuszewski M (2013) Neurosonology. In: Monitoring in neurocritical care. Elsevier, pp 300–313.e6
Kumar Sahel D, Kaira M, Raj K et al (2019) Mitochondrial dysfunctioning and neuroinflammation: recent highlights on the possible mechanisms involved in traumatic brain injury. Neurosci Lett 710:134347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134347
doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.134347
pubmed: 31229625
Larner SF, Hayes RL, McKinsey DM et al (2004) Increased expression and processing of caspase-12 after traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurochem 88:78–90. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.02141.x
doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.02141.x
pubmed: 14675152
Larner SF, Hayes RL, Wang KKW (2006) Unfolded protein response after neurotrauma. J Neurotrauma 23:807–829. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2006.23.807
doi: 10.1089/neu.2006.23.807
pubmed: 16774469
Leddy JJ, Haider MN, Ellis MJ et al (2019) Early subthreshold aerobic exercise for sport-related concussion: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr 173:319–325. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.4397
doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.4397
pubmed: 30715132
pmcid: 6450274
Lee SJ, Jang SH (2021) Correction to: Hypothalamic injury in spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Clin Auton Res off J Clin Auton Res Soc 31:343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10286-020-00757-3
doi: 10.1007/s10286-020-00757-3
Li Z, Song Y, He T et al (2021) M2 microglial small extracellular vesicles reduce glial scar formation via the miR-124/STAT3 pathway after ischemic stroke in mice. Theranostics 11:1232–1248. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.48761
doi: 10.7150/thno.48761
pubmed: 33391532
pmcid: 7738903
Lindblad C, Nelson DW, Zeiler FA et al (2020) Influence of blood–brain barrier integrity on brain protein biomarker clearance in severe traumatic brain injury: a longitudinal prospective study. J Neurotrauma 37:1381–1391. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2019.6741
doi: 10.1089/neu.2019.6741
pubmed: 32013731
pmcid: 7249468
Lindsey HM, Wilde EA, Caeyenberghs K, Dennis EL (2019) Longitudinal neuroimaging in pediatric traumatic brain injury: current state and consideration of factors that influence recovery. Front Neurol 10:1296. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01296
doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01296
pubmed: 31920920
pmcid: 6927298
Ljubisavljevic S (2016) Oxidative stress and neurobiology of demyelination. Mol Neurobiol 53:744–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-014-9041-x
doi: 10.1007/s12035-014-9041-x
pubmed: 25502298
Logsdon AF, Turner RC, Lucke-Wold BP et al (2014) Altering endoplasmic reticulum stress in a model of blast-induced traumatic brain injury controls cellular fate and ameliorates neuropsychiatric symptoms. Front Cell Neurosci 8:421. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2014.00421
doi: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00421
pubmed: 25540611
pmcid: 4261829
Lucke-Wold BP, Turner RC, Logsdon AF et al (2014) Linking traumatic brain injury to chronic traumatic encephalopathy: identification of potential mechanisms leading to neurofibrillary tangle development. J Neurotrauma 31:1129–1138. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2013.3303
doi: 10.1089/neu.2013.3303
pubmed: 24499307
pmcid: 4089022
Lucke-Wold BP, Turner RC, Logsdon AF et al (2016) Endoplasmic reticulum stress implicated in chronic traumatic encephalopathy. J Neurosurg 124:687–702. https://doi.org/10.3171/2015.3.JNS141802
doi: 10.3171/2015.3.JNS141802
pubmed: 26381255
Lucke-Wold BP, Logsdon AF, Turner RC et al (2017) Endoplasmic reticulum stress modulation as a target for ameliorating effects of blast induced traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 34:S62–S70. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2016.4680
doi: 10.1089/neu.2016.4680
pubmed: 28077004
Luo P, Li X, Wu X et al (2019) Preso regulates NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity via modulating nitric oxide and calcium responses after traumatic brain injury. Cell Death Dis 10:496. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-019-1731-x
doi: 10.1038/s41419-019-1731-x
pubmed: 31235685
pmcid: 6591282
Lyu J, Jiang X, Leak RK et al (2021) Microglial responses to brain injury and disease: functional diversity and new opportunities. Transl Stroke Res 12:474–495. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12975-020-00857-2
doi: 10.1007/s12975-020-00857-2
pubmed: 33128703
Maas AIR, Menon DK, Adelson PD et al (2017) Traumatic brain injury: integrated approaches to improve prevention, clinical care, and research. Lancet Neurol 16:987–1048. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30371-X
doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30371-X
pubmed: 29122524
Major BP, McDonald SJ, O’Brien WT et al (2020) Serum protein biomarker findings reflective of oxidative stress and vascular abnormalities in male, but not female, collision sport athletes. Front Neurol 11:549624. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.549624
doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.549624
pubmed: 33117257
pmcid: 7561422
Mathew BP, DeWitt DS, Bryan RM et al (1999) Traumatic brain injury reduces myogenic responses in pressurized rodent middle cerebral arteries. J Neurotrauma 16:1177–1186. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.1999.16.1177
doi: 10.1089/neu.1999.16.1177
pubmed: 10619196
Mattson MP (2017) Excitotoxicity. Neurodegeneration 37–45
McCorry LK (2007) Physiology of the autonomic nervous system. Am J Pharm Educ 71:78. https://doi.org/10.5688/aj710478
doi: 10.5688/aj710478
pubmed: 17786266
pmcid: 1959222
McGinn MJ, Povlishock JT (2016) Pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. Neurosurg Clin N Am 27:397–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2016.06.002
doi: 10.1016/j.nec.2016.06.002
pubmed: 27637392
McKee AC, Daneshvar DH (2015) The neuropathology of traumatic brain injury. Handb Clin Neurol 127:45–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52892-6.00004-0
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-52892-6.00004-0
pubmed: 25702209
pmcid: 4694720
McKee AC, Daneshvar DH, Alvarez VE, Stein TD (2014) The Neuropathology of Sport Acta Neuropathol (berl) 127:29–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-013-1230-6
doi: 10.1007/s00401-013-1230-6
pubmed: 24366527
McKee AC, Stein TD, Kiernan PT, Alvarez VE (2015) The neuropathology of chronic traumatic encephalopathy: CTE neuropathology. Brain Pathol 25:350–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/bpa.12248
doi: 10.1111/bpa.12248
pubmed: 25904048
pmcid: 4526170
McKinlay A, Dalrymple-Alford JC, Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM (2002) Long term psychosocial outcomes after mild head injury in early childhood. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 73:281–288. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.73.3.281
doi: 10.1136/jnnp.73.3.281
pubmed: 12185159
pmcid: 1738032
Mei F, Lehmann-Horn K, Shen Y-AA et al (2016) Accelerated remyelination during inflammatory demyelination prevents axonal loss and improves functional recovery. eLife 5:e18246. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.18246
doi: 10.7554/eLife.18246
pubmed: 27671734
pmcid: 5039026
Mietto BS, Mostacada K, Martinez AMB (2015) Neurotrauma and Inflammation: CNS and PNS responses. Mediators Inflamm 2015:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/251204
doi: 10.1155/2015/251204
Millet A, Bouzat P, Trouve-Buisson T et al (2016) Erythropoietin and its derivates modulate mitochondrial dysfunction after diffuse traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 33:1625–1633. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2015.4160
doi: 10.1089/neu.2015.4160
pubmed: 26530102
Morel L, Domingues O, Zimmer J, Michel T (2020) Revisiting the role of neurotrophic factors in inflammation. Cells 9:865. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9040865
doi: 10.3390/cells9040865
pubmed: 32252363
pmcid: 7226825
Morrison B, Elkin BS, Dollé J-P, Yarmush ML (2011) In vitro models of traumatic brain injury. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 13:91–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071910-124706
doi: 10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071910-124706
pubmed: 21529164
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Board on Health Care Services; Board on Health Sciences Policy; Committee on Accelerating Progress in Traumatic Brain Injury Research and Care (2022) Traumatic brain injury: a roadmap for accelerating progress. National Academies Press (US), Washington (DC)
Naredi S, Lambert G, Edén E et al (2000) Increased sympathetic nervous activity in patients with nontraumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 31:901–906. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.31.4.901
doi: 10.1161/01.str.31.4.901
pubmed: 10753996
Nikolakopoulou AM, Zhao Z, Montagne A, Zlokovic BV (2017) Regional early and progressive loss of brain pericytes but not vascular smooth muscle cells in adult mice with disrupted platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β signaling. PLoS ONE 12:e0176225. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176225
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176225
pubmed: 28441414
pmcid: 5404855
Niu J, Tsai H-H, Hoi KK et al (2019) Aberrant oligodendroglial–vascular interactions disrupt the blood–brain barrier, triggering CNS inflammation. Nat Neurosci 22:709–718. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0369-4
doi: 10.1038/s41593-019-0369-4
pubmed: 30988524
pmcid: 6486410
Oakes SA, Papa FR (2015) The role of endoplasmic reticulum stress in human pathology. Annu Rev Pathol Mech Dis 10:173–194. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-012513-104649
doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-012513-104649
Okonkwo DO, Shutter LA, Moore C et al (2017) Brain oxygen optimization in severe traumatic brain injury phase-II: a phase II randomized trial. Crit Care Med 45:1907–1914. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000002619
doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000002619
pubmed: 29028696
pmcid: 5679063
Osier ND, Carlson SW, DeSana A, Dixon CE (2015) Chronic histopathological and behavioral outcomes of experimental traumatic brain injury in adult male animals. J Neurotrauma 32:1861–1882. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3680
doi: 10.1089/neu.2014.3680
pubmed: 25490251
pmcid: 4677114
Park E, Bell JD, Siddiq IP, Baker AJ (2009) An analysis of regional microvascular loss and recovery following two grades of fluid percussion trauma: a role for hypoxia-inducible factors in traumatic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 29:575–584. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2008.151
doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.2008.151
pubmed: 19088740
Patrikios P, Stadelmann C, Kutzelnigg A et al (2006) Remyelination is extensive in a subset of multiple sclerosis patients. Brain J Neurol 129:3165–3172. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awl217
doi: 10.1093/brain/awl217
Perkes I, Baguley IJ, Nott MT, Menon DK (2010) A review of paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity after acquired brain injury. Ann Neurol 68:126–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.22066
doi: 10.1002/ana.22066
pubmed: 20695005
Petersen A, Soderstrom M, Saha B, Sharma P (2021) Animal models of traumatic brain injury: a review of pathophysiology to biomarkers and treatments. Exp Brain Res 239:2939–2950. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-021-06178-6
doi: 10.1007/s00221-021-06178-6
pubmed: 34324019
Petkus V, Krakauskaitė S, Preikšaitis A et al (2016) Association between the outcome of traumatic brain injury patients and cerebrovascular autoregulation, cerebral perfusion pressure, age, and injury grades. Med Kaunas Lith 52:46–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medici.2016.01.004
doi: 10.1016/j.medici.2016.01.004
Piantino J, Schwartz DL, Luther M et al (2021) Link between mild traumatic brain injury, poor sleep, and magnetic resonance imaging: visible perivascular spaces in veterans. J Neurotrauma 38:2391–2399. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2020.7447
doi: 10.1089/neu.2020.7447
pubmed: 33599176
pmcid: 8390772
Pop V, Sorensen DW, Kamper JE et al (2013) Early brain injury alters the blood-brain barrier phenotype in parallel with β-amyloid and cognitive changes in adulthood. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow Metab 33:205–214. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2012.154
doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.2012.154
Puhakka N, Das Gupta S, Leskinen S et al (2023) Proteomics of deep cervical lymph nodes after experimental traumatic brain injury. Neurotrauma Rep 4:359–366. https://doi.org/10.1089/neur.2023.0008
doi: 10.1089/neur.2023.0008
pubmed: 37284699
pmcid: 10240307
Purkayastha S, Stokes M, Bell KR (2019) Autonomic nervous system dysfunction in mild traumatic brain injury: a review of related pathophysiology and symptoms. Brain Inj 33:1129–1136. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2019.1631488
doi: 10.1080/02699052.2019.1631488
pubmed: 31216903
Raees M, Cheserem B, Mutiso B et al (2022) The next frontier in neurocritical care in resource-constrained settings. Crit Care Clin 38:721–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccc.2022.06.016
doi: 10.1016/j.ccc.2022.06.016
pubmed: 36162907
Read A, Schröder M (2021) The unfolded protein response: an overview. Biology 10:384. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10050384
doi: 10.3390/biology10050384
pubmed: 33946669
pmcid: 8146082
Rubovitch V, Barak S, Rachmany L et al (2015) The neuroprotective effect of salubrinal in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury. Neuromolecular Med 17:58–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12017-015-8340-3
doi: 10.1007/s12017-015-8340-3
pubmed: 25582550
Ruiz A, Zuazo J, Ortiz-Sanz C et al (2020) Sephin1 protects neurons against excitotoxicity independently of the integrated stress response. Int J Mol Sci 21:6088. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176088
doi: 10.3390/ijms21176088
pubmed: 32846985
pmcid: 7504470
Russo MV, Latour LL, McGavern DB (2018) Distinct myeloid cell subsets promote meningeal remodeling and vascular repair after mild traumatic brain injury. Nat Immunol 19:442–452. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-018-0086-2
doi: 10.1038/s41590-018-0086-2
pubmed: 29662169
pmcid: 6426637
Saatman KE, Creed J, Raghupathi R (2010) Calpain as a therapeutic target in traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics 7:31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nurt.2009.11.002
doi: 10.1016/j.nurt.2009.11.002
pubmed: 20129495
pmcid: 2842949
Schwarzmaier SM, Kim S-W, Trabold R, Plesnila N (2010) Temporal profile of thrombogenesis in the cerebral microcirculation after traumatic brain injury in mice. J Neurotrauma 27:121–130. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2009.1114
doi: 10.1089/neu.2009.1114
pubmed: 19803784
Scorrano L, Nicolli A, Basso E et al (1997) Two modes of activation of the permeability transition pore: the role of mitochondrial cyclophilin. Mol Cell Biochem 174:181–184
doi: 10.1023/A:1006887921810
pubmed: 9309684
Sercombe R, Dinh YRT, Gomis P (2002) Cerebrovascular inflammation following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Jpn J Pharmacol 88:227–249. https://doi.org/10.1254/jjp.88.227
doi: 10.1254/jjp.88.227
pubmed: 11949877
Smith C (2017) Neurotrauma. Handb Clin Neurol 145:115–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802395-2.00008-0
doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-802395-2.00008-0
pubmed: 28987162
Smith M, Wilkinson S (2017) ER homeostasis and autophagy. Essays Biochem 61:625–635. https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170092
doi: 10.1042/EBC20170092
pubmed: 29233873
pmcid: 5869861
Smith BG, Whiffin CJ, Esene IN et al (2021) Neurotrauma clinicians’ perspectives on the contextual challenges associated with long-term follow-up following traumatic brain injury in low-income and middle-income countries: a qualitative study protocol. BMJ Open 11:e041442. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-041442
doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-041442
pubmed: 33664068
pmcid: 7934765
Sokka A-L, Putkonen N, Mudo G et al (2007) Endoplasmic reticulum stress inhibition protects against excitotoxic neuronal injury in the rat brain. J Neurosci off J Soc Neurosci 27:901–908. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4289-06.2007
doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4289-06.2007
Springer JE, Visavadiya NP, Sullivan PG, Hall ED (2018) Post-injury treatment with NIM811 promotes recovery of function in adult female rats after spinal cord contusion: a dose-response study. J Neurotrauma 35:492–499. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2017.5167
doi: 10.1089/neu.2017.5167
pubmed: 28967329
pmcid: 5793953
Stephens JA, Liu P, Lu H, Suskauer SJ (2018) Cerebral blood flow after mild traumatic brain injury: associations between symptoms and post-injury perfusion. J Neurotrauma 35:241–248. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2017.5237
doi: 10.1089/neu.2017.5237
pubmed: 28967326
pmcid: 5784789
Strbian D, Durukan A, Pitkonen M et al (2008) The blood-brain barrier is continuously open for several weeks following transient focal cerebral ischemia. Neuroscience 153:175–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.02.012
doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.02.012
pubmed: 18367342
Sun T, Hevner RF (2014) Growth and folding of the mammalian cerebral cortex: from molecules to malformations. Nat Rev Neurosci 15:217–232. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3707
doi: 10.1038/nrn3707
pubmed: 24646670
pmcid: 4107216
Takahashi C, Hinson HE, Baguley IJ (2015) Autonomic dysfunction syndromes after acute brain injury. In: Handbook of clinical neurology. Elsevier, pp 539–551
Tan CO, Hamner JW, Taylor JA (2013) The role of myogenic mechanisms in human cerebrovascular regulation. J Physiol 591:5095–5105. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.259747
doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.259747
pubmed: 23959681
pmcid: 3810812
Tan H-P, Guo Q, Hua G et al (2018) Inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress alleviates secondary injury after traumatic brain injury. Neural Regen Res 13:827–836. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.232477
doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.232477
pubmed: 29863013
pmcid: 5998611
Tian Y, Zhao M, Chen Y et al (2022) The underlying role of the glymphatic system and meningeal lymphatic vessels in cerebral small vessel disease. Biomolecules 12:748. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom12060748
doi: 10.3390/biom12060748
pubmed: 35740873
pmcid: 9221030
Tunthanathip T, Phuenpathom N, Sae-Heng S et al (2019) Traumatic cerebrovascular injury: clinical characteristics and illustrative cases. Neurosurg Focus 47:E4. https://doi.org/10.3171/2019.8.FOCUS19382
doi: 10.3171/2019.8.FOCUS19382
pubmed: 31675714
Ueda Y, Walker SA, Povlishock JT (2006) Perivascular nerve damage in the cerebral circulation following traumatic brain injury. Acta Neuropathol (berl) 112:85–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-005-0029-5
doi: 10.1007/s00401-005-0029-5
pubmed: 16718445
Ünal İ, Çalışkan-Ak E, Üstündağ ÜV et al (2020) Neuroprotective effects of mitoquinone and oleandrin on Parkinson’s disease model in zebrafish. Int J Neurosci 130:574–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207454.2019.1698567
doi: 10.1080/00207454.2019.1698567
pubmed: 31771386
Vaccaro A, Patten SA, Aggad D et al (2013) Pharmacological reduction of ER stress protects against TDP-43 neuronal toxicity in vivo. Neurobiol Dis 55:64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2013.03.015
doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2013.03.015
pubmed: 23567652
Valle D, Villarreal XP, Lunny C et al (2022) Surgical management of neurotrauma: when to intervene. J Clin Trials Regul 4:41–55
Vesoulis ZA, Mathur AM (2017) Cerebral autoregulation, brain injury, and the transitioning premature infant. Front Pediatr 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2017.00064
Wang M, Ding F, Deng S et al (2017) Focal solute trapping and global glymphatic pathway impairment in a murine model of multiple microinfarcts. J Neurosci 37:2870–2877. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2112-16.2017
doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2112-16.2017
pubmed: 28188218
pmcid: 5354332
Wang G-H, Jiang Z-L, Li Y-C et al (2011) Free-radical scavenger edaravone treatment confers neuroprotection against traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 28:2123–2134. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.1939
doi: 10.1089/neu.2011.1939
pubmed: 21732763
pmcid: 3191368
Wang C-C, Wee H-Y, Hu C-Y et al (2018) The effects of memantine on glutamic receptor-associated nitrosative stress in a traumatic brain injury rat model. World Neurosurg 112:e719–e731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2018.01.140
doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2018.01.140
pubmed: 29382619
Weber JT (2012) Altered calcium signaling following traumatic brain injury. Front Pharmacol 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2012.00060
Wei EP, Dietrich WD, Povlishock JT et al (1980) Functional, morphological, and metabolic abnormalities of the cerebral microcirculation after concussive brain injury in cats. Circ Res 46:37–47. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.res.46.1.37
doi: 10.1161/01.res.46.1.37
pubmed: 7349916
Willis EF, MacDonald KPA, Nguyen QH et al (2020) Repopulating microglia promote brain repair in an IL-6-dependent manner. Cell 180:833–846.e16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.013
doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.013
pubmed: 32142677
Witcher KG, Bray CE, Chunchai T et al (2021) Traumatic brain injury causes chronic cortical inflammation and neuronal dysfunction mediated by microglia. J Neurosci off J Soc Neurosci 41:1597–1616. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2469-20.2020
doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2469-20.2020
Wofford K, Loane D, Dk C (2019) Acute drivers of neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury. Neural Regen Res 14:1481. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.255958
doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.255958
pubmed: 31089036
pmcid: 6557091
Wu H-M, Huang S-C, Hattori N, et al (2004) Subcortical white matter metabolic changes remote from focal hemorrhagic lesions suggest diffuse injury after human traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery 55:1306–1315; discussio 1316–1317. https://doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000143028.08719.42
Wu Y-H, Park TI-H, Kwon E et al (2022) Analyzing pericytes under mild traumatic brain injury using 3D cultures and dielectric elastomer actuators. Front Neurosci 16:994251. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.994251
doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.994251
pubmed: 36440264
pmcid: 9684674
Wu J, Zhao Z, Kumar A et al (2016) Endoplasmic reticulum stress and disrupted neurogenesis in the brain are associated with cognitive impairment and depressive-like behavior after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 33:1919–1935. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2015.4348
doi: 10.1089/neu.2015.4348
pubmed: 27050417
pmcid: 5105355
Yamazaki T, Mukouyama Y (2018) Tissue specific origin, development, and pathological perspectives of pericytes. Front Cardiovasc Med 5:78. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2018.00078
doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2018.00078
pubmed: 29998128
pmcid: 6030356
Yoshino A, Hovda DA, Kawamata T et al (1991) Dynamic changes in local cerebral glucose utilization following cerebral concussion in rats: evidence of a hyper- and subsequent hypometabolic state. Brain Res 561:106–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(91)90755-K
doi: 10.1016/0006-8993(91)90755-K
pubmed: 1797338
Yue J, Deng H (2023) Traumatic brain injury: contemporary challenges and the path to progress. J Clin Med 12:3283. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12093283
doi: 10.3390/jcm12093283
pubmed: 37176723
pmcid: 10179594
Yue JK, Kobeissy FH, Jain S et al (2023) Neuroinflammatory Biomarkers for traumatic brain injury diagnosis and prognosis: a TRACK-TBI pilot study. Neurotrauma Rep 4:171–183. https://doi.org/10.1089/neur.2022.0060
doi: 10.1089/neur.2022.0060
pubmed: 36974122
pmcid: 10039275
Zhang K, Kaufman RJ (2008) From endoplasmic-reticulum stress to the inflammatory response. Nature 454:455–462. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07203
doi: 10.1038/nature07203
pubmed: 18650916
pmcid: 2727659
Zhao X, Ahram A, Berman RF et al (2003) Early loss of astrocytes after experimental traumatic brain injury. Glia 44:140–152. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.10283
doi: 10.1002/glia.10283
pubmed: 14515330
Zhou J, Wang H, Shen R et al (2018) Mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant MitoQ provides neuroprotection and reduces neuronal apoptosis in experimental traumatic brain injury possibly via the Nrf2-ARE pathway. Am J Transl Res 10:1887–1899
pubmed: 30018728
pmcid: 6038061