Hexavalent chromium exposure activates the non-canonical nuclear factor kappa B pathway to promote immune checkpoint protein programmed death-ligand 1 expression and lung carcinogenesis.

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide; however, the mechanism of lung carcinogenesis has not been clearly defined. Chronic exposure to hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)], a common environmental and occupational pollutant, causes lung cancer, representing an important lung cancer etiology factor. The mechanism of how chronic Cr(VI) exposure causes lung cancer remains largely unknown. By using cell culture and mouse models and bioinformatics analyses of human lung cancer gene expression profiles, this study investigated the mechanism of Cr(VI)-induced lung carcinogenesis. A new mouse model of Cr(VI)-induced lung carcinogenesis was developed as evidenced by the findings showing that a 16-week Cr(VI) exposure (CaCrO

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Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.