Corticotropin-releasing hormone and obesity: From fetal life to adulthood.
HPA axis (hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal)
corticotropin‐releasing hormone
obesity
Journal
Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity
ISSN: 1467-789X
Titre abrégé: Obes Rev
Pays: England
ID NLM: 100897395
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
03 May 2024
03 May 2024
Historique:
revised:
02
02
2024
received:
27
09
2023
accepted:
19
03
2024
medline:
3
5
2024
pubmed:
3
5
2024
entrez:
3
5
2024
Statut:
aheadofprint
Résumé
Obesity is among the most common chronic disorders, worldwide. It is a complex disease that reflects the interactions between environmental influences, multiple genetic allelic variants, and behavioral factors. Recent developments have also shown that biological conditions in utero play an important role in the programming of energy homeostasis systems and might have an impact on obesity and metabolic disease risk. The corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) family of neuropeptides, as a central element of energy homeostasis, has been evaluated for its role in the pathophysiology of obesity. This review aims to summarize the relevance and effects of the CRH family of peptides in the pathophysiology of obesity spanning from fetal life to adulthood.
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
e13763Subventions
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : UIDB/00051/2020
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : UIDP/00051/2020
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : LA/P/0053/2020
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : PTDC/MED-FSL/31719/2017
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : POCI-01-0145-FEDER-031719
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : 2022.08921.PTDC
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : DOI10.54499/2022.08921.PTDC
Organisme : Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
ID : UI/BD/153104/2022
Organisme : Marie Skłodowska-Curie
ID : No847635
Informations de copyright
© 2024 The Authors. Obesity Reviews published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of World Obesity Federation.
Références
Spiegelman BM, Flier JS. Obesity and the regulation of energy balance. Cell. 2001;104(4):531‐543. doi:10.1016/S0092‐8674(01)00240‐9
Obesity and overweight. World Health Organization; 2016.
Stevens GA, Singh GM, Lu Y, et al. National, regional, and global trends in adult overweight and obesity prevalences. Popul Health Metr. 2012;10(1):22. doi:10.1186/1478‐7954‐10‐22
Gupta N, Goel K, Shah P, Misra A. Childhood obesity in developing countries: epidemiology, determinants, and prevention. Endocr Rev. 2012;33(1):48‐70. doi:10.1210/er.2010‐0028
Maggi S, Busetto L, Noale M, Limongi F, Crepaldi G. Obesity: definition and epidemiology. Multidiscip Approach Obes. 2015;31‐39. doi:10.1007/978‐3‐319‐09045‐0_3
Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 2000;894:i‐xii, 1‐253.
Seneviratne SN, Rajindrajith S. Fetal programming of obesity and type 2 diabetes. World J Diabetes. 2022;13(7):482‐497. doi:10.4239/wjd.v13.i7.482
Jin X, Qiu T, Li L, et al. Pathophysiology of obesity and its associated diseases. Acta Pharm Sin B. 2023;13(6):2403‐2424. doi:10.1016/j.apsb.2023.01.012
Fantuzzi G, Mazzone T. Adipose tissue and atherosclerosis: exploring the connection. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27(5):996‐1003. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.106.131755
Engin AB. What is lipotoxicity? Adv Exp med Biol. 2017;960:197‐220. doi:10.1007/978‐3‐319‐48382‐5_8
Chung WK, Leibel RL. Considerations regarding the genetics of obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008;16(Suppl 3):S33‐S39. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.514
Gluckman PD, Hanson M, Zimmet P, Forrester T. Losing the war against obesity: the need for a developmental perspective. Sci Transl Med. 2011;3(93):93cm19. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3002554
Marciniak A, Patro‐Malysza J, Kimber‐Trojnar Z, Marciniak B, Oleszczuk J, Leszczynska‐Gorzelak B. Fetal programming of the metabolic syndrome. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2017;56(2):133‐138. doi:10.1016/j.tjog.2017.01.001
Stout SA, Espel EV, Sandman CA, Glynn LM, Davis EP. Fetal programming of children's obesity risk. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015;53:29‐39. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.12.009
Fekete EM, Zorrilla EP. Physiology, pharmacology, and therapeutic relevance of urocortins in mammals: ancient CRF paralogs. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2007;28(1):1‐27. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2006.09.002
Charmandari E, Tsigos C, Chrousos G. Endocrinology of the stress response. Annu Rev Physiol. 2005;67(1):259‐284. doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.67.040403.120816
Adao R, Santos‐Ribeiro D, Rademaker MT, Leite‐Moreira AF, Bras‐Silva C. Urocortin 2 in cardiovascular health and disease. Drug Discov Today. 2015;20(7):906‐914. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2015.02.012
Kimura Y, Takahashi K, Totsune K, et al. Expression of urocortin and corticotropin‐releasing factor receptor subtypes in the human heart. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(1):340‐346. doi:10.1210/jcem.87.1.8160
Hauger RL, Grigoriadis DE, Dallman MF, Plotsky PM, Vale WW, Dautzenberg FM. International Union of Pharmacology. XXXVI. Current status of the nomenclature for receptors for corticotropin‐releasing factor and their ligands. Pharmacol Rev. 2003;55(1):21‐26. doi:10.1124/pr.55.1.3
Vale W, Spiess J, Rivier C, Rivier J. Characterization of a 41‐residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and beta‐endorphin. Science. 1981;213(4514):1394‐1397. doi:10.1126/science.6267699
Hillhouse EW, Grammatopoulos DK. The molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of the biological activity of corticotropin‐releasing hormone receptors: implications for physiology and pathophysiology. Endocr Rev. 2006;27(3):260‐286. doi:10.1210/er.2005‐0034
Takahashi K, Totsune K, Murakami O, et al. Expression of urocortin III/stresscopin in human heart and kidney. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(4):1897‐1903. doi:10.1210/jc.2003‐031663
Sharma R, Banerji MA. Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) and obesity. Maturitas. 2012;72(1):1‐3. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2012.01.015
Watanabe T, Orth DN. Detailed kinetic analysis of adrenocorticotropin secretion by dispersed rat anterior pituitary cells in a microperifusion system: effects of ovine corticotropin‐releasing factor and arginine vasopressin. Endocrinology. 1987;121(3):1133‐1145. doi:10.1210/endo‐121‐3‐1133
Tasker JG, Herman JP. Mechanisms of rapid glucocorticoid feedback inhibition of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis. Stress. 2011;14(4):398‐406. doi:10.3109/10253890.2011.586446
Boero G, Tyler RE, O'Buckley TK, Balan I, Besheer J, Morrow AL. (3alpha,5alpha)3‐Hydroxypregnan‐20‐one (3alpha,5alpha‐THP) regulation of the HPA axis in the context of different stressors and sex. Biomolecules. 2022;12(8):1134.
Gianotti L, Belcastro S, D'Agnano S, Tassone F. The stress axis in obesity and diabetes mellitus: an update. Endocrine. 2021;2(3):334‐347. doi:10.3390/endocrines2030031
Adam TC, Epel ES. Stress, eating and the reward system. Physiol Behav. 2007;91(4):449‐458. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.04.011
Sominsky L, Spencer SJ. Eating behavior and stress: a pathway to obesity. Front Psychol. 2014;5:434. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00434
Samarghandian S, Ohata H, Yamauchi N, Shibasaki T. Corticotropin‐releasing factor as well as opioid and dopamine are involved in tail‐pinch‐induced food intake of rats. Neuroscience. 2003;116(2):519‐524. doi:10.1016/S0306‐4522(02)00712‐1
Levine AS, Morley JE. Stress‐induced eating in rats. Am J Physiol. 1981;241(1):R72‐R76. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1981.241.1.R72
Rowland NE, Antelman SM. Stress‐induced hyperphagia and obesity in rats: a possible model for understanding human obesity. Science. 1976;191(4224):310‐312. doi:10.1126/science.1246617
George SA, Khan S, Briggs H, Abelson JL. CRH‐stimulated cortisol release and food intake in healthy, non‐obese adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2010;35(4):607‐612. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.09.017
Hillebrand JJ, de Wied D, Adan RA. Neuropeptides, food intake and body weight regulation: a hypothalamic focus. Peptides. 2002;23(12):2283‐2306. doi:10.1016/S0196‐9781(02)00269‐3
Arase K, Shargill NS, Bray GA. Effects of corticotropin releasing factor on genetically obese (fatty) rats. Physiol Behav. 1989;45(3):565‐570. doi:10.1016/0031‐9384(89)90074‐7
Mastorakos G, Zapanti E. The hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis in the neuroendocrine regulation of food intake and obesity: the role of corticotropin releasing hormone. Nutr Neurosci. 2004;7(5‐6):271‐280. doi:10.1080/10284150400020516
Ha GE, Cheong E. Chronic restraint stress decreases the excitability of hypothalamic POMC neuron and increases food intake. Exp Neurobiol. 2021;30(6):375‐386. doi:10.5607/en21037
Zhu C, Xu Y, Jiang Z, et al. Disrupted hypothalamic CRH neuron responsiveness contributes to diet‐induced obesity. EMBO Rep. 2020;21(7):e49210. doi:10.15252/embr.201949210
Vicennati V, Ceroni L, Gagliardi L, Gambineri A, Pasquali R. Comment: response of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenocortical axis to high‐protein/fat and high‐carbohydrate meals in women with different obesity phenotypes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(8):3984‐3988. doi:10.1210/jcem.87.8.8718
St‐Pierre DH, Richard D. The effect of exercise on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Endocrinol Phys Activity Sport. 2013;37‐47. doi:10.1007/978‐1‐62703‐314‐5_3
Yanagita S, Amemiya S, Suzuki S, Kita I. Effects of spontaneous and forced running on activation of hypothalamic corticotropin‐releasing hormone neurons in rats. Life Sci. 2007;80(4):356‐363. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2006.09.027
Teske JA, Billington CJ, Kotz CM. Neuropeptidergic mediators of spontaneous physical activity and non‐exercise activity thermogenesis. Neuroendocrinology. 2008;87(2):71‐90. doi:10.1159/000110802
Kawaguchi M, Scott KA, Moran TH, Bi S. Dorsomedial hypothalamic corticotropin‐releasing factor mediation of exercise‐induced anorexia. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288(6):R1800‐R1805. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00805.2004
Richard D, Rivest S. The role of exercise in thermogenesis and energy balance. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1989;67(4):402‐409. doi:10.1139/y89‐064
Kochavi D, Davis JD, Smith GP. Corticotropin‐releasing factor decreases meal size by decreasing cluster number in Koletsky (LA/N) rats with and without a null mutation of the leptin receptor. Physiol Behav. 2001;74(4‐5):645‐651. doi:10.1016/S0031‐9384(01)00610‐2
Rivest S, Richard D. Involvement of corticotropin‐releasing factor in the anorexia induced by exercise. Brain Res Bull. 1990;25(1):169‐172. doi:10.1016/0361‐9230(90)90270‐A
Bi S, Scott KA, Hyun J, Ladenheim EE, Moran TH. Running wheel activity prevents hyperphagia and obesity in Otsuka long‐Evans Tokushima fatty rats: role of hypothalamic signaling. Endocrinology. 2005;146(4):1676‐1685. doi:10.1210/en.2004‐1441
Goland RS, Wardlaw SL, Blum M, Tropper PJ, Stark RI. Biologically active corticotropin‐releasing hormone in maternal and fetal plasma during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;159(4):884‐890. doi:10.1016/S0002‐9378(88)80162‐5
Robinson BG, Emanuel RL, Frim DM, Majzoub JA. Glucocorticoid stimulates expression of corticotropin‐releasing hormone gene in human placenta. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988;85(14):5244‐5248. doi:10.1073/pnas.85.14.5244
Sandman CA, Davis EP. Neurobehavioral risk is associated with gestational exposure to stress hormones. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. 2012;7(4):445‐459. doi:10.1586/eem.12.33
Sandman CA, Glynn L, Schetter CD, et al. Elevated maternal cortisol early in pregnancy predicts third trimester levels of placental corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH): priming the placental clock. Peptides. 2006;27(6):1457‐1463. doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2005.10.002
Deer LK, Su C, Thwaites NA, Davis EP, Doom JR. A framework for testing pathways from prenatal stress‐responsive hormones to cardiovascular disease risk. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023;14:1111474. doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1111474
Davis EP, Waffarn F, Uy C, Hobel CJ, Glynn LM, Sandman CA. Effect of prenatal glucocorticoid treatment on size at birth among infants born at term gestation. J Perinatol. 2009;29(11):731‐737. doi:10.1038/jp.2009.85
Duthie L, Reynolds RM. Changes in the maternal hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis in pregnancy and postpartum: influences on maternal and fetal outcomes. Neuroendocrinology. 2013;98(2):106‐115. doi:10.1159/000354702
Masuzaki H, Paterson J, Shinyama H, et al. A transgenic model of visceral obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Science. 2001;294(5549):2166‐2170. doi:10.1126/science.1066285
Langley‐Evans SC. Fetal programming of cardiovascular function through exposure to maternal undernutrition. Proc Nutr Soc. 2001;60(4):505‐513. doi:10.1079/PNS2001111
Seckl JR. Glucocorticoid programming of the fetus; adult phenotypes and molecular mechanisms. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2001;185(1‐2):61‐71. doi:10.1016/S0303‐7207(01)00633‐5
Liu L, Li A, Matthews SG. Maternal glucocorticoid treatment programs HPA regulation in adult offspring: sex‐specific effects. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001;280(5):E729‐E739. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.2001.280.5.E729
Hediger ML, Overpeck MD, Kuczmarski RJ, McGlynn A, Maurer KR, Davis WW. Muscularity and fatness of infants and young children born small‐ or large‐for‐gestational‐age. Pediatrics. 1998;102(5):E60. doi:10.1542/peds.102.5.e60
Bazaes RA, Salazar TE, Pittaluga E, et al. Glucose and lipid metabolism in small for gestational age infants at 48 hours of age. Pediatrics. 2003;111(4):804‐809. doi:10.1542/peds.111.4.804
Soto N, Bazaes RA, Pena V, et al. Insulin sensitivity and secretion are related to catch‐up growth in small‐for‐gestational‐age infants at age 1 year: results from a prospective cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(8):3645‐3650. doi:10.1210/jc.2002‐030031
Lopez‐Bermejo A, Casano‐Sancho P, Fernandez‐Real JM, et al. Both intrauterine growth restriction and postnatal growth influence childhood serum concentrations of adiponectin. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2004;61(3):339‐346. doi:10.1111/j.1365‐2265.2004.02102.x
Evagelidou EN, Giapros VI, Challa AS, Kiortsis DN, Tsatsoulis AA, Andronikou SK. Serum adiponectin levels, insulin resistance, and lipid profile in children born small for gestational age are affected by the severity of growth retardation at birth. Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;156(2):271‐277. doi:10.1530/eje.1.02337
Seckl JR, Holmes MC. Mechanisms of disease: glucocorticoids, their placental metabolism and fetal ‘programming’ of adult pathophysiology. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2007;3(6):479‐488. doi:10.1038/ncpendmet0515
Xu D, Zhang B, Liang G, et al. Caffeine‐induced activated glucocorticoid metabolism in the hippocampus causes hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis inhibition in fetal rats. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(9):e44497. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044497
Long NM, Nathanielsz PW, Ford SP. The impact of maternal overnutrition and obesity on hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis response of offspring to stress. Domest Anim Endocrinol. 2012;42(4):195‐202. doi:10.1016/j.domaniend.2011.12.002
Coplan JD, Abdallah CG, Mathew SJ, et al. Metabolic syndrome and neurometabolic asymmetry of hippocampus in adult bonnet monkeys. Physiol Behav. 2011;103(5):535‐539. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.03.020
Dulloo AG, Jacquet J, Seydoux J, Montani JP. The thrifty ‘catch‐up fat’ phenotype: its impact on insulin sensitivity during growth trajectories to obesity and metabolic syndrome. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006;30(Suppl 4):S23‐S35. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803516
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Cooper C, Thornburg KL. Effect of in utero and early‐life conditions on adult health and disease. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(1):61‐73. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0708473
Frayn KN, Arner P, Yki‐Jarvinen H. Fatty acid metabolism in adipose tissue, muscle and liver in health and disease. Essays Biochem. 2006;42:89‐103. doi:10.1042/bse0420089
Reynolds RM, Walker BR. Human insulin resistance: the role of glucocorticoids. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2003;5(1):5‐12. doi:10.1046/j.1463‐1326.2003.00221.x
Drapeau V, Therrien F, Richard D, Tremblay A. Is visceral obesity a physiological adaptation to stress? Panminerva Med. 2003;45(3):189‐195.
Tabarin A, Diz‐Chaves Y, Consoli D, et al. Role of the corticotropin‐releasing factor receptor type 2 in the control of food intake in mice: a meal pattern analysis. Eur J Neurosci. 2007;26(8):2303‐2314. doi:10.1111/j.1460‐9568.2007.05856.x
Brar BK, Jonassen AK, Egorina EM, et al. Urocortin‐II and urocortin‐III are cardioprotective against ischemia reperfusion injury: an essential endogenous cardioprotective role for corticotropin releasing factor receptor type 2 in the murine heart. Endocrinology. 2004;145(1):24‐35, discussion 21‐3. doi:10.1210/en.2003‐0689
Adao R, Mendes‐Ferreira P, Santos‐Ribeiro D, et al. Urocortin‐2 improves right ventricular function and attenuates pulmonary arterial hypertension. Cardiovasc Res. 2018;114(8):1165‐1177. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvy076
Monteiro‐Pinto C, Adao R, Leite‐Moreira AF, Bras‐Silva C. Cardiovascular effects of urocortin‐2: pathophysiological mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2019;33(5):599‐613. doi:10.1007/s10557‐019‐06895‐9
Roustit MM, Vaughan JM, Jamieson PM, Cleasby ME. Urocortin 3 activates AMPK and AKT pathways and enhances glucose disposal in rat skeletal muscle. J Endocrinol. 2014;223(2):143‐154. doi:10.1530/JOE‐14‐0181
Jamieson PM, Cleasby ME, Kuperman Y, et al. Urocortin 3 transgenic mice exhibit a metabolically favourable phenotype resisting obesity and hyperglycaemia on a high‐fat diet. Diabetologia. 2011;54(9):2392‐2403. doi:10.1007/s00125‐011‐2205‐6
Li C, Chen P, Vaughan J, Lee KF, Vale W. Urocortin 3 regulates glucose‐stimulated insulin secretion and energy homeostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104(10):4206‐4211. doi:10.1073/pnas.0611641104
van der Meulen T, Donaldson CJ, Caceres E, et al. Urocortin3 mediates somatostatin‐dependent negative feedback control of insulin secretion. Nat Med. 2015;21(7):769‐776. doi:10.1038/nm.3872
Chen A, Brar B, Choi CS, et al. Urocortin 2 modulates glucose utilization and insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(44):16580‐16585. doi:10.1073/pnas.0607337103
Gao MH, Giamouridis D, Lai NC, et al. One‐time injection of AAV8 encoding urocortin 2 provides long‐term resolution of insulin resistance. JCI Insight. 2016;1:e88322.
Giamouridis D, Gao MH, Lai NC, et al. Effects of urocortin 2 versus urocortin 3 gene transfer on left ventricular function and glucose disposal. JACC Basic Transl Sci. 2018;3(2):249‐264. doi:10.1016/j.jacbts.2017.12.004
Kim YC, Giamouridis D, Lai NC, et al. Urocortin 2 gene transfer reduces the adverse effects of a western diet on cardiac function in mice. Hum Gene Ther. 2019;30(6):693‐701. doi:10.1089/hum.2018.150
Borg ML, Massart J, De Castro BT, et al. Modified UCN2 peptide treatment improves skeletal muscle mass and function in mouse models of obesity‐induced insulin resistance. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2021;12(5):1232‐1248. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12746
Borg ML, Massart J, Schonke M, et al. Modified UCN2 peptide acts as an insulin sensitizer in skeletal muscle of obese mice. Diabetes. 2019;68(7):1403‐1414. doi:10.2337/db18‐1237
Gao MH, Giamouridis D, Lai NC, et al. Urocortin 2 gene transfer improves glycemic control and reduces retinopathy and mortality in murine insulin deficiency. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev. 2020;17:220‐233. doi:10.1016/j.omtm.2019.12.002
Entringer S. Impact of stress and stress physiology during pregnancy on child metabolic function and obesity risk. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013;16(3):320‐327. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e32835e8d80
Nobili V, Alisi A, Panera N, Agostoni C. Low birth weight and catch‐up‐growth associated with metabolic syndrome: a ten year systematic review. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2008;6(2):241‐247.
Fasting MH, Oken E, Mantzoros CS, et al. Maternal levels of corticotropin‐releasing hormone during pregnancy in relation to adiponectin and leptin in early childhood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(4):1409‐1415. doi:10.1210/jc.2008‐1424
Gillman MW, Rich‐Edwards JW, Huh S, et al. Maternal corticotropin‐releasing hormone levels during pregnancy and offspring adiposity. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14(9):1647‐1653. doi:10.1038/oby.2006.189
Wadhwa PD, Garite TJ, Porto M, et al. Placental corticotropin‐releasing hormone (CRH), spontaneous preterm birth, and fetal growth restriction: a prospective investigation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191(4):1063‐1069. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2004.06.070
La Marca‐Ghaemmaghami P, Dainese SM, Stalla G, Haller M, Zimmermann R, Ehlert U. Second‐trimester amniotic fluid corticotropin‐releasing hormone and urocortin in relation to maternal stress and fetal growth in human pregnancy. Stress. 2017;20(3):231‐240. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1312336
Mueller BR, Bale TL. Impact of prenatal stress on long term body weight is dependent on timing and maternal sensitivity. Physiol Behav. 2006;88(4‐5):605‐614. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.019
Stirrat LI, O'Reilly JR, Barr SM, et al. Decreased maternal hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis activity in very severely obese pregnancy: associations with birthweight and gestation at delivery. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2016;63:135‐143. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.09.019
Stirrat LI, O'Reilly JR, Riley SC, et al. Altered maternal hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis activity in obese pregnancy is associated with macrosomia and prolonged pregnancy. Pregnancy Hypertens. 2014;4(3):238. doi:10.1016/j.preghy.2014.03.028
Bahreynian M, Qorbani M, Khaniabadi BM, et al. Association between obesity and parental weight status in children and adolescents. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2017;9(2):111‐117. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.3790
Derraik JGB, Maessen SE, Gibbins JD, Cutfield WS, Lundgren M, Ahlsson F. Large‐for‐gestational‐age phenotypes and obesity risk in adulthood: a study of 195,936 women. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):2157. doi:10.1038/s41598‐020‐58827‐5
T L, H B. Atlas of childhood obesity. World Obesity Federation; 2019.
Hotamisligil GS. Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature. 2006;444(7121):860‐867. doi:10.1038/nature05485
Simmonds M, Llewellyn A, Owen CG, Woolacott N. Predicting adult obesity from childhood obesity: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Obes Rev. 2016;17(2):95‐107. doi:10.1111/obr.12334
Bjerregaard LG, Adelborg K, Baker JL. Change in body mass index from childhood onwards and risk of adult cardiovascular disease. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2020;30(1):39‐45. doi:10.1016/j.tcm.2019.01.011
Kavalakatt S, Khadir A, Madhu D, et al. Circulating levels of urocortin neuropeptides are impaired in children with overweight. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2022;30(2):472‐481. doi:10.1002/oby.23356
Kavalakatt S, Khadir A, Kochumon S, et al. Urocortin neuropeptide levels are impaired in the PBMCs of overweight children. Nutrients. 2022;14(3):429. doi:10.3390/nu14030429
Kavalakatt S, Khadir A, Madhu D, et al. Urocortin 3 levels are impaired in overweight humans with and without type 2 diabetes and modulated by exercise. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2019;10:762. doi:10.3389/fendo.2019.00762
Alarslan P, Unal Kocabas G, Demir I, et al. Increased urocortin 3 levels are associated with the risk of having type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes. 2020;12(6):474‐482. doi:10.1111/1753‐0407.13020
Vasconcelos I, Adao R, Rademaker MT, Leite‐Moreira AF, Fontes‐Sousa AP, Bras‐Silva C. Urocortins as biomarkers in cardiovascular disease. Clin Sci (Lond). 2022;136(1):1‐14. doi:10.1042/CS20210732
Bellieni CV. The Golden 1,000 days. Journal of Gen Pract. 2016;04(02):04. doi:10.4172/2329‐9126.1000250
Schwarzenberg SJ, Georgieff MK, Committee ON. Advocacy for improving nutrition in the first 1000 days to support childhood development and adult health. Pediatrics. 2018;141(2):e20173716. doi:10.1542/peds.2017‐3716
Mardali F, Hosseini‐Baharanchi FS, Dehnad A, Shidfar F, Mohammadi S, Gaman MA. Comparison of the key modifiable factors in the first 1000 days predicting subsequent overweight and obesity in pre‐school children in Tehran: a case‐control study. Br J Nutr. 2022;128(5):955‐963. doi:10.1017/S0007114521003937
Martorell R. Improved nutrition in the first 1000 days and adult human capital and health. Am J Hum Biol. 2017;29(2):10. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22952
Christoffersen BO, Sanchez‐Delgado G, John LM, Ryan DH, Raun K, Ravussin E. Beyond appetite regulation: targeting energy expenditure, fat oxidation, and lean mass preservation for sustainable weight loss. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2022;30(4):841‐857. doi:10.1002/oby.23374