Enmity then empathy: How militarisation facilitated collaborative but exclusive exchange in Sierra Leone's Ebola response.
Ebola
Mary Douglas
Sierra Leone
hierarchy
localisation
militarisation
securitisation
Journal
Disasters
ISSN: 1467-7717
Titre abrégé: Disasters
Pays: England
ID NLM: 7702072
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
13 Jun 2024
13 Jun 2024
Historique:
received:
21
08
2023
accepted:
07
05
2024
medline:
13
6
2024
pubmed:
13
6
2024
entrez:
13
6
2024
Statut:
aheadofprint
Résumé
In the autumn of 2014, with the 2013-16 West Africa Ebola epidemic spiralling out of control, the United Kingdom announced a bespoke military mission to support-and in some ways lead-numerous Ebola response functions in Sierra Leone. This study examines the nature and effect of the civil-military relationships that subsequently developed between civilian and military Ebola response workers (ERWs). In total, 110 interviews were conducted with key involved actors, and the findings were analysed by drawing on the neo-Durkheimian theory of organisations. This paper finds that stereotypical opposition between humanitarian and military actors helps to explain how and why there was initial cooperative and collaborative challenges. However, all actors were found to have similar hierarchical structures and operations, which explains how and why they were later able to cooperate and collaborate effectively. It also explains how and why civilian ERWs might have served to exclude and further marginalise some local actors.
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
e12643Informations de copyright
© 2024 ODI.
Références
6, P. (2014) ‘Elementary forms and their dynamics: revisiting Mary Douglas’. Anthropological Forum. 24(3). pp. 287–307.
6, P. (2015) Explaining Political Judgement. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
6, P. and P. Richards (2017) Mary Douglas: Understanding Social Thought and Conflict. Berghahn Books, New York, NY.
Albrecht, P. and P. Jackson (2009) Security System Transformation in Sierra Leone, 1997–2007. February. Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform, Birmingham, and International Alert, London.
Alejandria, M.C.P. et al. (2022) Humanitarian‐Military Relations in Complex Emergencies: Evidence, Insights, and Recommendations. May. Center for Human Rights and Humanitarian Studies, Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University, Providence, RI.
Ali, S.H., M.P. Fallah, J.M. McCarthy, R. Keil, and C. Connolly (2022) ‘Mobilizing the social infrastructure of informal settlements in infectious disease response – the case of Ebola virus disease in West Africa’. Landscape and Urban Planning. 217 (January). Article number: 104256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104256.
Ali, S.H. et al. (2023) ‘Ebola, informal settlements, and the role of place in infectious disease vulnerability: evidence from the 2014–16 outbreak in urban Sierra Leone’. Disasters. 47(2). pp. 389–411.
Arie, S. (2014) ‘Only the military can get the Ebola epidemic under control: MSF head’. BMJ. 349 (October). Article number: g6151. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g6151.
Bah, A.B. (2013) ‘The contours of new humanitarianism: war and peacebuilding in Sierra Leone’. Africa Today. 60(1). pp. 3–26.
Bangura, J.J. and M. Mustapha (2016) Democratization and Human Security in Postwar Sierra Leone. Springer International Publishing, Cham.
Barakat, S., S. Deely, and S.A. Zyck (2010) ‘“A tradition of forgetting”: stabilisation and humanitarian action in historical perspective’. Disasters. 34(S3). pp. S297–S319.
Benton, A. (2017) ‘Whose security? Militarization and securitization during West Africa's Ebola outbreak’. In M. Hofman and S. Au (eds.) The Politics of Fear: Médecins sans Frontières and the West African Ebola Epidemic. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 25–50.
Boland, S.T., C. McInnes, S. Gordon, and L. Lillywhite (2020) ‘Civil‐military relations: a review of major guidelines and their relevance during public health emergencies’. BMJ Military Health. 167 (August). pp. 99–106.
Boland, S.T., D. Balabanova, and S. Mayhew (2023a) ‘The political economy of expedience: examining perspectives on military support to Sierra Leone's Ebola response’. Conflict and Health. 17 (November). Article number: 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-023-00553-6.
Boland, S.T., D. Balabanova, and S. Mayhew (2023b) ‘Examining the militarised hierarchy of Sierra Leone's Ebola response and implications for decision making during public health emergencies’. Globalization and Health. 19 (November). Article number: 89. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-023-00995-w.
Boland, S.T., S. Mayhew, and D. Balabanova (2023) ‘Securitising public health emergencies: a qualitative examination of the origins of military intervention in Sierra Leone's Ebola epidemic’. BMJ Public Health. 1(1). Published online: 4 August 2023. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjph-2023-000236.
Borchgrevink, K. (2022) ‘Negotiating rights and faith: a study of rights‐based approaches to humanitarian action in Pakistan’. Disasters. 46(2). pp. 427–449.
Brooks, J. and R. Grace (2020) ‘Confronting humanitarian insecurity: the law and politics of responding to attacks against aid workers’. Journal of Humanitarian Affairs. 2(1). pp. 11–20.
Bruff, I. (2014) ‘The rise of authoritarian neoliberalism’. Rethinking Marxism. 26(1). pp. 113–129.
Burke, R.P. (2018) ‘Command and control: challenging fallacies of the “military model” in research and practice’. International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters. 36(2). pp. 149–178.
Byman, D., I.O. Lesser, B.R. Pirnie, C. Benard, and M. Waxman (2000) Strengthening the Partnership: Improving Military Coordination with Relief Agencies and Allies in Humanitarian Operations. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA.
Chandler, D. (2002) Rethinking Human Rights: Critical Approaches to International Politics. Springer, New York, NY.
Chandler, D. (2006) From Kosovo to Kabul and Beyond: Human Rights and International Intervention. Pluto Press, London.
Chandler, D.G. (2001) ‘The road to military humanitarianism: how the human rights NGOs shaped a new humanitarian agenda’. Human Rights Quarterly. 23. pp. 678–700.
Craddock, S. and S. Hinchliffe (2015) ‘One world, one health? Social science engagements with the one health agenda’. Social Science & Medicine. 129 (March). pp. 1–4.
De Cordier, B. (2009) ‘Faith‐based aid, globalisation and the humanitarian frontline: an analysis of Western‐based Muslim aid organisations’. Disasters. 33(4). pp. 608–628.
Donini, A. (2011) ‘Between a rock and a hard place: integration or independence of humanitarian action?’. International Review of the Red Cross. 93(881). pp. 141–157.
Douglas, M. and A. Wildavsky (1983) Risk and Culture: An Essay on the Selection of Technological and Environmental Dangers. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Duffield, M. (2001) Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security. Bloomsbury Publishing, London.
Duffield, M. (2007) Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples. Polity, Cambridge.
Duffield, M. (2010) ‘Risk‐management and the fortified aid compound: everyday life in post‐interventionary society’. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding. 4(4). pp. 453–474.
Dzingirai, V. et al. (2017) ‘Structural drivers of vulnerability to zoonotic disease in Africa’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 372(1725). Article number: 20160169. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0169.
Ehrenfeld, A.P. (2021) Politicization of Humanitarian Aid in the 21st Century. Master's thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the Department of Humanitarian Studies at Fordham University, New York, NY. May. https://research.library.fordham.edu/dissertations/AAI28496531 (last accessed on 24 May 2024).
Enria, L. (2019) ‘The Ebola crisis in Sierra Leone: mediating containment and engagement in humanitarian emergencies’. Development and Change. 50(6). pp. 1602–1623.
Enria, L. (2020) ‘Unsettled authority and humanitarian practice: reflections on local legitimacy from Sierra Leone's borderlands’. Oxford Development Studies. 48(4). pp. 387–399.
Farmer, P. (2020) Fevers, Feuds, and Diamonds: Ebola and the Ravages of History. Farrar Straus & Giroux, New York, NY.
Fassin, D. (2013) ‘The predicament of humanitarianism’. Qui Parle. 22(1). pp. 33–48.
Fassin, D. and M. Pandolfi (2013) Contemporary States of Emergency: The Politics of Military and Humanitarian Interventions. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Ferris, E. (2011) ‘Faith and humanitarianism: it's complicated’. Journal of Refugee Studies. 24(3). pp. 606–625.
Fischer, H.W. (2001) The Deconstruction of the Command and Control Model: A Postmodern Analysis. Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the European Sociological Association, ‘Visions and Divisions: Challenges to European Sociology’, Helsinki, Finland, 28 August–1 September 2001.
Gabiam, N. (2012) ‘When “humanitarianism” becomes “development”: the politics of international aid in Syria's Palestinian refugee camps’. American Anthropologist. 114(1). pp. 95–107.
Gabiam, N. (2016) ‘Humanitarianism, development, and security in the 21st century: lessons from the Syrian refugee crisis’. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 48(2). pp. 382–386.
Gordon, S. and A. Donini (2015) ‘Romancing principles and human rights: are humanitarian principles salvageable?’. International Review of the Red Cross. 97(897–898). pp. 77–109.
Grace, R. (2020) Surmounting Contemporary Challenges to Humanitarian‐Military Relations. August. Center for Human Rights and Humanitarian Studies, Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University, Providence, RI.
Harrald, J.R. (2006) ‘Agility and discipline: critical success factors for disaster response’. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 604(1). pp. 256–272.
Herman, J. and D. Dijkzeul (2011) ‘A matter of principles: humanitarian challenges’. The Broker website. 9 February. https://www.thebrokeronline.eu/a-matter-of-principles/ (last accessed on 24 May 2024).
Hilhorst, D. (2018) ‘Classical humanitarianism and resilience humanitarianism: making sense of two brands of humanitarian action’. Journal of International Humanitarian Action. 3 (September). Article number: 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-018-0043-6.
Hirsch, L.A. (2021) ‘Race and the spatialisation of risk during the 2013–2016 West African Ebola epidemic’. Health & Place. 67 (January). Article number: 102499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2020.102499.
Hood, C. (2000) The Art of the State: Culture, Rhetoric, and Public Management. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Horne, S. and S.T. Boland (2022) ‘Understanding medical civil‐military relationships within the humanitarian‐development‐peace “triple nexus”: a typology to enable effective discourse’. BMJ Military Health. 168(6). pp. 408–416.
Hrdličková, Z. et al. (2023) ‘Ebola and slum dwellers: community engagement and epidemic response strategies in urban Sierra Leone’. Heliyon. 9(7). Article number: e17425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17425.
Ismail, F. and S. Kamat (2018) ‘NGOs, social movements and the neoliberal state: incorporation, reinvention, critique’. Critical Sociology. 44(4–5). pp. 569–577.
Jackson, H.R. (1993) ‘Armed humanitarianism’. International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis. 48(4). pp. 579–606.
Kamradt‐Scott, A., S. Harman, C. Wenham, and F. Smith, III (2015) Saving Lives: The Civil‐Military Response to the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa. October. The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW.
Kandeh, J.D. (1992) ‘Politicization of ethnic identities in Sierra Leone’. African Studies Review. 35(1). pp. 81–99.
Keese, A. (2016) ‘Fragmentation and the Temne: from war raids into ethnic civil wars’. In A. Keese (ed.) Ethnicity and the Colonial State: Finding and Representing Group Identifications in a Coastal West African and Global Perspective (1850–1960). Brill, Leiden. pp. 158–219.
Khafagy, R.A. (2020) ‘Faith‐based organizations: humanitarian mission or religious missionary’. Journal of International Humanitarian Action. 5 (October). Article number: 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-020-00080-6.
Klein‐Kelly, N. (2018) ‘More humanitarian accountability, less humanitarian access? Alternative ideas on accountability for protection activities in conflict settings’. International Review of the Red Cross. 100(907–909). pp. 287–313.
Lillywhite, L. and B. Wakefield (2021) ‘New roles for military in health emergency preparedness’. Chatham House website. 27 August. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/08/new-roles-military-health-emergency-preparedness (last accessed on 24 May 2024).
Macrae, J. and L. Leader (2000) The Politics of Coherence: Humanitarianism and Foreign Policy in the Post‐Cold War Era. HPG Briefing No. 1. July. Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute, London.
Mayhew, S.H. et al. (2022) ‘(Re)arranging “systems of care” in the early Ebola response in Sierra Leone: an interdisciplinary analysis’. Social Science & Medicine. 300 (May). Article number: 114209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114209.
Metcalfe, V., S. Haysom, and S. Gordon (2012) Trends and Challenges in Humanitarian Civil‐Military Coordination: A Review of the Literature. HPG Working Paper. May. Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute, London.
MSF (Médecins Sans Frontières) (2019) ‘Military presence leads MSF to stop activities in Ebola‐affected Biakato’. Website. Press Release. 24 December. https://www.msf.org/dr-congo-msf-stops-ebola-and-medical-care-due-military-presence (last accessed on 24 May 2024).
Munro, A. (1998) ‘Humanitarianism and conflict in a post‐Cold War world’. The RUSI Journal. 143(6). pp. 14–19.
Özerdem, A. and G. Rufini (2005) ‘Humanitarianism and the principles of humanitarian action in post‐Cold War context’. In S. Barakat (ed.) After the Conflict: Reconstruction and Development in the Aftermath of War. I.B. Taurus, London. pp. 51–66.
Parker, M., T.M. Hanson, A. Vandi, L.S. Babawo, and T. Allen (2019) ‘Ebola and public authority: saving loved ones in Sierra Leone’. Medical Anthropology. 38(5). pp. 440–454.
Patel, P., K. Lee, and O. Williams (2004) ‘Health, development and security’. In A. Ingram (ed.) Health, Foreign Policy and Security: Towards a Conceptual Framework for Research and Policy. UK Global Health Programme Working Paper No. 2. The Nuffield Trust, London. pp. 59–72.
Rayner, S.F. (1979) The Classification and Dynamics of Sectarian Forms of Organisation: Grid/Group Perspectives on the Far‐Left in Britain. Thesis for the degree of PhD (Doctor of Philosophy). University College London, London. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1349448/ (last accessed on 24 May 2024).
Richards, P. (2011) ‘Sacred contagion: cults of war in Nigeria and Sierra Leone compared’. In E. Jul‐Larsen et al. (eds.) Une anthropologie entre pouvoirs et histoire: conversations autour de l'oeuvre de Jean‐Pierre Chauveau. Association for the Anthropology of Social Change and Development, Uppsala. pp. 535–551.
Richards, P. (2016) Ebola: How a People's Science Helped End an Epidemic. Zed Books, London.
Richardson, E.T., T. McGinnis, and R. Frankfurter (2021) ‘Ebola and the narrative of mistrust’. BMJ Global Health. 4 (March). Article number: e001932. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001932.
Roberts, N.C. (2010) ‘Spanning “bleeding” boundaries: humanitarianism, NGOs, and the civilian‐military nexus in the post–Cold War era’. Public Administration Review. 70(2). pp. 212–222.
Ross, E. (2017) ‘Command and control of Sierra Leone's Ebola outbreak response: evolution of the response architecture’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 372(1721). Article number: 20160306. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0306.
Rushton, S. (2011) ‘Global health security: security for whom? Security from what?’. Political Studies. 59(4). pp. 779–796.
Rushton, S. and C. McInnes (2006) ‘The UK, health and peace‐building: the mysterious disappearance of health as a bridge for peace’. Medicine, Conflict and Survival. 22(2). pp. 94–109.
Rutazibwa, O.U. (2014) ‘Studying Agaciro: moving beyond Wilsonian interventionist knowledge production on Rwanda’. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding. 8(4). pp. 291–302.
Schümer, T. (2008a) New Humanitarianism: Britain and Sierra Leone, 1997–2003. Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Schümer, T. (2008b) ‘DFID and new humanitarianism’. In T. Schümer (ed.) New Humanitarianism: Britain and Sierra Leone, 1997–2003. Palgrave Macmillan, London. pp. 26–53.
Schümer, T. (2008c) ‘The politics of new humanitarianism’. In T. Schümer (ed.) New Humanitarianism: Britain and Sierra Leone, 1997–2003. Palgrave Macmillan, London. pp. 1–25.
Sezgin, Z. and D. Dijkzeul (2015) The New Humanitarians in International Practice: Emerging Actors and Contested Principles. Routledge, Abingdon‐on‐Thames.
Shepler, S. (2017) ‘“We know who is eating the Ebola money!”: corruption, the state, and the Ebola response’. Anthropological Quarterly. 90(2). pp. 451–473.
Stallings, R.A. and E.L. Quarantelli (1985) ‘Emergent citizen groups and emergency management’. Public Administration Review. 45 (January). pp. 93–100.
Thaut, L.C. (2009) ‘The role of faith in Christian faith‐based humanitarian agencies: constructing the taxonomy’. Voluntas. 20 (December). pp. 319–350.
Whitty, B. (2016) Machines for Thinking: How Sector Categories Justify Development Spending. Thesis for the degree of PhD (Doctor of Philosophy). University of East Anglia, Norwich.
Wilkinson, A. and J. Fairhead (2017) ‘Comparison of social resistance to Ebola response in Sierra Leone and Guinea suggests explanations lie in political configurations not culture’. Critical Public Health. 27(1). pp. 14–27.
Wilkinson, A. and M. Leach (2015) ‘Briefing: Ebola—myths, realities, and structural violence’. African Affairs. 114(454). pp. 136–148.
Winslow, D. (2002) ‘Strange bedfellows: NGOs and the military in humanitarian crises’. International Journal of Peace Studies. 7(2). pp. 35–55.