Spontaneous instrumental approach-avoidance learning in social contexts in autism.
Approach/avoidance
Autism
Emotional expressions
Gender bias
Social reinforcement learning
Journal
Molecular autism
ISSN: 2040-2392
Titre abrégé: Mol Autism
Pays: England
ID NLM: 101534222
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
31 Jul 2024
31 Jul 2024
Historique:
received:
21
12
2023
accepted:
17
07
2024
medline:
1
8
2024
pubmed:
1
8
2024
entrez:
31
7
2024
Statut:
epublish
Résumé
Individuals with Autism Spectrum Condition (ASC) are characterized by atypicalities in social interactions, compared to Typically Developing individuals (TD). The social motivation theory posits that these difficulties stem from diminished anticipation, reception, and/or learning from social rewards. Although learning from socioemotional outcomes is core to the theory, studies to date have been sparse and inconsistent. This possibly arises from a combination of theoretical, methodological and sample-related issues. Here, we assessed participants' ability to develop a spontaneous preference for actions that lead to desirable socioemotional outcomes (approaching/avoiding of happy/angry individuals, respectively), in an ecologically valid social scenario. We expected that learning abilities would be impaired in ASC individuals, particularly in response to affiliative social feedback. We ran an online social reinforcement learning task, on two large online cohorts with (n = 274) and without (n = 290) ASC, matched for gender, age and education. Participants had to indicate where they would sit in a waiting room. Each seat was associated with different probabilities of approaching/avoiding emotional individuals. Importantly, the task was implicit, as participants were not instructed to learn, and emotional expressions were never mentioned. We applied both categorical analyses contrasting the ASC and TD groups and dimensional factor analysis on affective questionnaires. Contrary to our hypothesis, participants showed spontaneous learning from socioemotional outcomes, regardless of their diagnostic group. Yet, when accounting for dimensional variations in autistic traits, as well as depression and anxiety, two main findings emerged among females who failed to develop explicit learning strategies: (1) autism severity in ASC correlated with reduced learning to approach happy individuals; (2) anxiety-depression severity across both ASC and TD participants correlated with reduced learning to approach/avoid happy/angry individuals, respectively. Implicit spontaneous learning from socioemotional outcomes is not generally impaired in autism but may be specifically associated with autism severity in females with ASC, when they do not have an explicit strategy for adapting to their social environment. Clinical diagnosis and intervention ought to take into account individual differences in their full complexity, including the presence of co-morbid anxiety and depression, when dealing with social atypicalities in autism.
Sections du résumé
BACKGROUND
BACKGROUND
Individuals with Autism Spectrum Condition (ASC) are characterized by atypicalities in social interactions, compared to Typically Developing individuals (TD). The social motivation theory posits that these difficulties stem from diminished anticipation, reception, and/or learning from social rewards. Although learning from socioemotional outcomes is core to the theory, studies to date have been sparse and inconsistent. This possibly arises from a combination of theoretical, methodological and sample-related issues. Here, we assessed participants' ability to develop a spontaneous preference for actions that lead to desirable socioemotional outcomes (approaching/avoiding of happy/angry individuals, respectively), in an ecologically valid social scenario. We expected that learning abilities would be impaired in ASC individuals, particularly in response to affiliative social feedback.
METHOD
METHODS
We ran an online social reinforcement learning task, on two large online cohorts with (n = 274) and without (n = 290) ASC, matched for gender, age and education. Participants had to indicate where they would sit in a waiting room. Each seat was associated with different probabilities of approaching/avoiding emotional individuals. Importantly, the task was implicit, as participants were not instructed to learn, and emotional expressions were never mentioned. We applied both categorical analyses contrasting the ASC and TD groups and dimensional factor analysis on affective questionnaires.
RESULTS
RESULTS
Contrary to our hypothesis, participants showed spontaneous learning from socioemotional outcomes, regardless of their diagnostic group. Yet, when accounting for dimensional variations in autistic traits, as well as depression and anxiety, two main findings emerged among females who failed to develop explicit learning strategies: (1) autism severity in ASC correlated with reduced learning to approach happy individuals; (2) anxiety-depression severity across both ASC and TD participants correlated with reduced learning to approach/avoid happy/angry individuals, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
Implicit spontaneous learning from socioemotional outcomes is not generally impaired in autism but may be specifically associated with autism severity in females with ASC, when they do not have an explicit strategy for adapting to their social environment. Clinical diagnosis and intervention ought to take into account individual differences in their full complexity, including the presence of co-morbid anxiety and depression, when dealing with social atypicalities in autism.
Identifiants
pubmed: 39085896
doi: 10.1186/s13229-024-00610-8
pii: 10.1186/s13229-024-00610-8
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
33Subventions
Organisme : Fondation de France
ID : 00100076
Organisme : Fondation de France
ID : 00100076
Organisme : Fondation de France
ID : 00100076
Organisme : Fondation de France
ID : 00100076
Organisme : Agence Nationale de la Recherche
ID : ANR-20-CE28-0003
Organisme : Agence Nationale de la Recherche
ID : ANR-20-CE28-0003
Organisme : Agence Nationale de la Recherche
ID : ANR-20-CE28-0003
Organisme : Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale
ID : DEQ20160334878
Informations de copyright
© 2024. The Author(s).
Références
Lord C, Brugha TS, Charman T, Cusack J, Dumas G, Frazier T, et al. Autism spectrum disorder. Nat Rev Dis Primer. 2020;6:1–23.
doi: 10.1038/s41572-019-0138-4
APA APA. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Am Psychiatr Assoc. 2013.
Volkmar FR, Reichow B. Autism in DSM-5: progress and challenges. Mol Autism. 2013;4:1–6.
doi: 10.1186/2040-2392-4-13
Trevisan DA, Roberts N, Lin C, Birmingham E. How do adults and teens with self-declared Autism Spectrum disorder experience eye contact? A qualitative analysis of first-hand accounts. PLoS ONE. 2017;12:e0188446.
pubmed: 29182643
pmcid: 5705114
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188446
Keifer CM, Mikami AY, Morris JP, Libsack EJ, Lerner MD. Prediction of Social Behavior in Autism Spectrum disorders: Explicit Versus Implicit Social Cognition. Autism Int J Res Pract. 2020;24:1758–72.
doi: 10.1177/1362361320922058
Lord C, Risi S, Lambrecht L, Cook EH, Leventhal BL, DiLavore PC, et al. The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Generic: a standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2000;30:205–23.
pubmed: 11055457
doi: 10.1023/A:1005592401947
Mundy P, Sullivan L, Mastergeorge AM. A parallel and distributed-processing model of joint attention, social cognition and autism. Autism Res. 2009;2:2–21.
pubmed: 19358304
pmcid: 2715157
doi: 10.1002/aur.61
Pfeiffer D, Holingue C, Dillon E, Kalb L, Reetzke R, Landa R. Parental concerns of children with ASD by age: a qualitative analysis. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2021;86:101817.
doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101817
Grèzes J, Wicker B, Berthoz S, De Gelder B. A failure to grasp the affective meaning of actions in autism spectrum disorder subjects. Neuropsychologia. 2009;47:1816–25.
pubmed: 19428413
doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.02.021
Ioannou C, Zein ME, Wyart V, Scheid I, Amsellem F, Delorme R, et al. Shared mechanism for emotion processing in adolescents with and without autism. Sci Rep. 2017;7:42696.
pubmed: 28218248
pmcid: 5317002
doi: 10.1038/srep42696
Kovarski K, Mennella R, Wong SM, Dunkley BT, Taylor MJ, Batty M. Enhanced early visual responses during Implicit Emotional faces Processing in Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49:871–86.
pubmed: 30374763
doi: 10.1007/s10803-018-3787-3
Kovarski K, Charpentier J, Houy-Durand E, Batty M, Gomot M. Emotional expression visual mismatch negativity in children. Dev Psychobiol. 2022;64:e22326.
pubmed: 36282743
pmcid: 9546429
doi: 10.1002/dev.22326
Mennella R, Leung RC, Taylor MJ, Dunkley BT. Disconnection from others in autism is more than just a feeling: whole-brain neural synchrony in adults during implicit processing of emotional faces. Mol Autism. 2017;8:1–12.
doi: 10.1186/s13229-017-0123-2
Sasson NJ. The development of face processing in autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2006;36:381–94.
pubmed: 16572261
doi: 10.1007/s10803-006-0076-3
Webb SJ, Jones EJ, Merkle K, Namkung J, Toth K, Greenson J, et al. Toddlers with elevated autism symptoms show slowed habituation to faces. Child Neuropsychol. 2010;16:255–78.
pubmed: 20301009
pmcid: 2989718
doi: 10.1080/09297041003601454
Yeung MK. A systematic review and meta-analysis of facial emotion recognition in autism spectrum disorder: the specificity of deficits and the role of task characteristics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022;133:104518.
pubmed: 34974069
doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.104518
Chevallier C, Kohls G, Troiani V, Brodkin ES, Schultz RT. The Social Motivation Theory of Autism. Trends Cogn Sci. 2012;16:231–9.
pubmed: 22425667
pmcid: 3329932
doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2012.02.007
Dawson G, Webb SJ, McPartland J. Understanding the nature of face processing impairment in autism: insights from behavioral and electrophysiological studies. Dev Neuropsychol. 2005;27:403–24.
pubmed: 15843104
doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2703_6
DeMayo MM, Young LJ, Hickie IB, Song YJC, Guastella AJ. Circuits for social learning: a unified model and application to Autism Spectrum Disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;107:388–98.
pubmed: 31560922
pmcid: 6875617
doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.034
Abrams DA, Padmanabhan A, Chen T, Odriozola P, Baker AE, Kochalka J, et al. Impaired voice processing in reward and salience circuits predicts social communication in children with autism. eLife. 2019;8:e39906.
pubmed: 30806350
pmcid: 6391069
doi: 10.7554/eLife.39906
Kohls G, Antezana L, Mosner M, Schultz R, Yerys B. Altered reward system reactivity for personalized circumscribed interests in autism. Mol Autism. 2018;9.
Shephard E, Milosavljevic B, Mason L, Elsabbagh M, Tye C, Gliga T, et al. Neural and behavioural indices of face processing in siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD): a longitudinal study from infancy to mid-childhood. Cortex. 2020;127:162–79.
pubmed: 32200288
pmcid: 7254063
doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2020.02.008
Supekar K, Kochalka J, Schaer M, Wakeman H, Qin S, Padmanabhan A, et al. Deficits in mesolimbic reward pathway underlie social interaction impairments in children with autism. Brain J Neurol. 2018;141:2795–805.
Hedger N, Dubey I, Chakrabarti B. Social orienting and social seeking behaviors in ASD. A meta analytic investigation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020;119:376–95.
pubmed: 33069686
doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.10.003
Jaswal VK, Akhtar N. Being versus appearing socially uninterested: challenging assumptions about social motivation in autism. Behav Brain Sci. 2019;42:e82.
doi: 10.1017/S0140525X18001826
Baumeister S, Moessnang C, Bast N, Hohmann S, Aggensteiner P, Kaiser A, et al. Processing of social and monetary rewards in autism spectrum disorders. Br J Psychiatry. 2023;222:100–11.
pubmed: 36700346
pmcid: 9929925
doi: 10.1192/bjp.2022.157
Cox A, Kohls G, Naples AJ, Mukerji CE, Coffman MC, Rutherford HJV, et al. Diminished social reward anticipation in the broad autism phenotype as revealed by event-related brain potentials. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2015;10:1357–64.
pubmed: 25752905
pmcid: 4590535
doi: 10.1093/scan/nsv024
Keifer CM, Day TC, Hauschild KM, Lerner MD. Social and nonsocial reward anticipation in typical development and autism spectrum disorders: current status and future directions. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2021;23:1–6.
doi: 10.1007/s11920-021-01247-7
Kohls G, Schulte-Rüther M, Nehrkorn B, Müller K, Fink GR, Kamp-Becker I, et al. Reward system dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2013;8:565–72.
pubmed: 22419119
doi: 10.1093/scan/nss033
Matyjek M, Bayer M, Dziobek I. Autistic Traits Affect Reward Anticipation but not Reception. Sci Rep [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Sep 22];10. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7242422/ .
McPartland JC, Crowley MJ, Perszyk DR, Mukerji CE, Naples AJ, Wu J, et al. Preserved reward outcome processing in ASD as revealed by event-related potentials. J Neurodev Disord. 2012;4:16.
pubmed: 22958616
pmcid: 3436639
doi: 10.1186/1866-1955-4-16
Bottini S. Social reward processing in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review of the social motivation hypothesis. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2018;45:9–26.
doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2017.10.001
Clements CC, Zoltowski AR, Yankowitz LD, Yerys BE, Schultz RT, Herrington JD. Evaluation of the Social Motivation Hypothesis of Autism: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75:797–808.
pubmed: 29898209
pmcid: 6143096
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1100
Dichter GS. Motivational impairments in Autism May be broader Than previously thought. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75:773.
pubmed: 29898211
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1078
Matyjek M, Bayer M, Dziobek I. Reward responsiveness in autism and autistic traits – evidence from neuronal, autonomic, and behavioural levels. NeuroImage Clin. 2023;38:103442.
pubmed: 37285795
pmcid: 10250120
doi: 10.1016/j.nicl.2023.103442
Schmitz N, Rubia K, van Amelsvoort T, Daly E, Smith A, Murphy DGM. Neural correlates of reward in autism. Br J Psychiatry J Ment Sci. 2008;192:19–24.
doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.107.036921
Xie H, Moraczewski D, McNaughton KA, Warnell KR, Alkire D, Merchant JS et al. Social reward network connectivity differs between autistic and neurotypical youth during social interaction. bioRxiv. 2023;2023.06.05.543807.
Jasmin K, Gotts SJ, Xu Y, Liu S, Riddell CD, Ingeholm JE, et al. Overt social interaction and resting state in young adult males with autism: core and contextual neural features. Brain. 2019;142:808–22.
pubmed: 30698656
pmcid: 6391610
doi: 10.1093/brain/awz003
Choi U-S, Kim S-Y, Sim HJ, Lee S-Y, Park S-Y, Jeong J-S, et al. Abnormal brain activity in social reward learning in children with autism spectrum disorder: an fMRI study. Yonsei Med J. 2015;56:705–11.
pubmed: 25837176
pmcid: 4397440
doi: 10.3349/ymj.2015.56.3.705
Kinard JL, Mosner MG, Greene RK, Addicott M, Bizzell J, Petty C, et al. Neural mechanisms of social and nonsocial reward prediction errors in adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Res off J Int Soc Autism Res. 2020;13:715–28.
doi: 10.1002/aur.2273
Lin A, Adolphs R, Rangel A. Impaired Learning of Social Compared to Monetary Rewards in Autism. Front Neurosci [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2023 Oct 25];6. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/ https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2012.00143 .
Scott-Van Zeeland AA, Dapretto M, Ghahremani DG, Poldrack RA, Bookheimer SY. Reward processing in autism. Autism Res off J Int Soc Autism Res. 2010;3:53–67.
doi: 10.1002/aur.122
Kruppa JA, Gossen A, Oberwelland Weiß E, Kohls G, Großheinrich N, Cholemkery H, et al. Neural modulation of social reinforcement learning by intranasal oxytocin in male adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder: a randomized trial. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2019;44:749–56.
pubmed: 30390065
doi: 10.1038/s41386-018-0258-7
Cannon J, O’Brien AM, Bungert L, Sinha P. Prediction in Autism Spectrum disorder: a systematic review of empirical evidence. Autism Res off J Int Soc Autism Res. 2021;14:604–30.
doi: 10.1002/aur.2482
Gomot M, Wicker B. A challenging, unpredictable world for people with autism spectrum disorder. Int J Psychophysiol. 2012;83:240–7.
pubmed: 21968196
doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.09.017
Pellicano E, Burr D. When the world becomes ‘too real’: a bayesian explanation of autistic perception. Trends Cogn Sci. 2012;16:504–10.
pubmed: 22959875
doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2012.08.009
Sapey-Triomphe L-A, Weilnhammer VA, Wagemans J. Associative learning under uncertainty in adults with autism: intact learning of the cue-outcome contingency, but slower updating of priors. Autism. 2022;26:1216–28.
pubmed: 34533061
doi: 10.1177/13623613211045026
Sinha P, Kjelgaard MM, Gandhi TK, Tsourides K, Cardinaux AL, Pantazis D, et al. Autism as a disorder of prediction. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2014;111:15220–5.
pubmed: 25288765
pmcid: 4210351
doi: 10.1073/pnas.1416797111
Monroy C, Meyer M, Gerson S, Hunnius S. Statistical learning in social action contexts. PLoS ONE. 2017;12:e0177261.
pubmed: 28475619
pmcid: 5419596
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177261
Chambon V, Farrer C, Pacherie E, Jacquet PO, Leboyer M, Zalla T. Reduced sensitivity to social priors during action prediction in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Cognition. 2017;160:17–26.
pubmed: 28039782
doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.12.005
Matyjek M, Meliss S, Dziobek I, Murayama K. A Multidimensional View on Social and Non-Social Rewards. Front Psychiatry [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2023 Oct 25];11. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/ https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00818 .
Callenmark B, Kjellin L, Rönnqvist L, Bölte S. Explicit versus implicit social cognition testing in autism spectrum disorder. Autism. 2014;18:684–93.
pubmed: 24104519
pmcid: 4230543
doi: 10.1177/1362361313492393
Helt MS, Fein DA, Vargas JE. Emotional contagion in children with autism spectrum disorder varies with stimulus familiarity and task instructions. Dev Psychopathol. 2020;32:383–93.
pubmed: 30924430
doi: 10.1017/S0954579419000154
Barkus E, Badcock JC. A Transdiagnostic Perspective on Social Anhedonia. Front Psychiatry [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2023 Oct 25];10. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/ https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00216 .
Grèzes J, Risch N, Courtet P, Olié E, Mennella R. Depression and approach-avoidance decisions to emotional displays: the role of anhedonia. Behav Res Ther. 2023;164:104306.
pubmed: 37043847
doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2023.104306
Barkus E. The effects of Anhedonia in Social Context. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep. 2021;8:77–89.
doi: 10.1007/s40473-021-00232-x
Kashdan TB. Social anxiety spectrum and diminished positive experiences: theoretical synthesis and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2007;27:348–65.
pubmed: 17222490
doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.12.003
Grèzes J, Erblang M, Vilarem E, Quiquempoix M, Van Beers P, Guillard M, et al. Impact of total sleep deprivation and related mood changes on approach-avoidance decisions to threat-related facial displays. Sleep. 2021;44:zsab186.
pubmed: 34313789
pmcid: 8664577
doi: 10.1093/sleep/zsab186
Hollocks MJ, Lerh JW, Magiati I, Meiser-Stedman R, Brugha TS. Anxiety and depression in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2019;49:559–72.
pubmed: 30178724
doi: 10.1017/S0033291718002283
Adams D, Ambrose K, Simpson K, Malone S, Dargue N. The relationshipbetween anxiety and social outcomes in autistic children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2023;26:706–20.
pubmed: 37606793
pmcid: 10465686
doi: 10.1007/s10567-023-00450-7
Duan S, Lee M, Wolf J, Naples AJ, McPartland JC. Higher depressive symptoms predict lower social adaptive functioning in children and adolescents with ASD. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol off J Soc Clin Child Adolesc Psychol Am Psychol Assoc Div. 2022;53:51:203–10.
Uljarević M, Hedley D, Rose-Foley K, Magiati I, Cai RY, Dissanayake C, et al. Anxiety and depression from adolescence to Old Age in Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2020;50:3155–65.
pubmed: 31190198
doi: 10.1007/s10803-019-04084-z
Sedgewick F, Hill V, Yates R, Pickering L, Pellicano E. Gender differences in the social motivation and friendship experiences of autistic and non-autistic adolescents. J Autism Dev Disord. 2016;46:1297–306.
pubmed: 26695137
doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2669-1
Distefano A, Jackson F, Levinson AR, Infantolino ZP, Jarcho JM, Nelson BD. A comparison of the electrocortical response to monetary and social reward. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2018;13:247–55.
pubmed: 29373743
pmcid: 5836277
doi: 10.1093/scan/nsy006
Lawrence KE, Hernandez LM, Eilbott J, Jack A, Aylward E, Gaab N, et al. Neural responsivity to social rewards in autistic female youth. Transl Psychiatry. 2020;10:178.
pubmed: 32488083
pmcid: 7266816
doi: 10.1038/s41398-020-0824-8
Spreckelmeyer KN, Krach S, Kohls G, Rademacher L, Irmak A, Konrad K, et al. Anticipation of monetary and social reward differently activates mesolimbic brain structures in men and women. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2009;4:158–65.
pubmed: 19174537
pmcid: 2686229
doi: 10.1093/scan/nsn051
Mandy W, Charman T, Gilmour J, Skuse D. Toward specifying pervasive developmental disorder—not otherwise specified. Autism Res. 2011;4:121–31.
pubmed: 21298812
doi: 10.1002/aur.178
Waterhouse L. Heterogeneity thwarts autism explanatory power: a proposal for endophenotypes. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13:947653.
pubmed: 36532199
pmcid: 9751779
doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.947653
Mennella R, Bavard S, Mentec I, Grèzes J. Spontaneous instrumental avoidance learning in social contexts. Sci Rep. 2022;12:17528.
pubmed: 36266316
pmcid: 9585085
doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-22334-6
Kim K, Rosenthal MZ, Gwaltney M, Jarrold W, Hatt N, McIntyre N, et al. A virtual joy-stick study of emotional responses and social motivation in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2015;45:3891–9.
pubmed: 24435405
pmcid: 5540145
doi: 10.1007/s10803-014-2036-7
Silva C, Da Fonseca D, Esteves F, Deruelle C. Motivational approach and avoidance in autism spectrum disorder: a comparison between real photographs and cartoons. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2015;17:13–24.
doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2015.05.004
Ho D, Imai K, King G, Stuart E, Whitworth A. Package ‘MatchIt.’ VersionGoogle Sch. 2018.
de Leeuw JR, jsPsych. A JavaScript library for creating behavioral experiments in a web browser. Behav Res Methods. 2015;47:1–12.
pubmed: 24683129
doi: 10.3758/s13428-014-0458-y
Fioravanti-Bastos ACM, Cheniaux E, Landeira-Fernandez J. Development and validation of a short-form version of the Brazilian state-trait anxiety inventory. Psicol Reflex E Crítica. 2011;24:485–94.
doi: 10.1590/S0102-79722011000300009
English MCW, Gignac GE, Visser TAW, Whitehouse AJO, Enns JT, Maybery MT. The Comprehensive Autistic Trait Inventory (CATI): development and validation of a new measure of autistic traits in the general population. Mol Autism. 2021;12:37.
pubmed: 34001225
pmcid: 8130295
doi: 10.1186/s13229-021-00445-7
Carver CS, White TL. Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: the BIS/BAS scales. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1994;67:319–33.
doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319
Kroenke K, Strine TW, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Berry JT, Mokdad AH. The PHQ-8 as a measure of current depression in the general population. J Affect Disord. 2009;114:163–73.
pubmed: 18752852
doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.026
Mennella R, Vilarem E, Grèzes J. Rapid approach-avoidance responses to emotional displays reflect value-based decisions: neural evidence from an EEG study. NeuroImage. 2020;222:117253.
pubmed: 32798685
doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117253
Vilarem E, Armony JL, Grèzes J. Action opportunities modulate attention allocation under social threat. Emotion. 2020;20:890.
pubmed: 30945887
doi: 10.1037/emo0000598
Cuthbert BN, Insel TR. Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Med. 2013;11.
Insel T, Cuthbert B, Garvey M, Heinssen R, Pine DS, Quinn K, et al. Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:748–51.
pubmed: 20595427
doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09091379
Mandy W. The Research Domain Criteria: A new dawn for neurodiversity research? Autism. 2018;22:642–4.
Hossain MM, Khan N, Sultana A, Ma P, McKyer ELJ, Ahmed HU, et al. Prevalence of comorbid psychiatric disorders among people with autism spectrum disorder: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Psychiatry Res. 2020;287:112922.
pubmed: 32203749
doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112922
Khachadourian V, Mahjani B, Sandin S, Kolevzon A, Buxbaum JD, Reichenberg A, et al. Comorbidities in autism spectrum disorder and their etiologies. Transl Psychiatry. 2023;13:71.
pubmed: 36841830
pmcid: 9958310
doi: 10.1038/s41398-023-02374-w
Revelle W, Revelle MW. Package ‘psych’. Compr R Arch Netw. 2015;337.
Lüdecke D, Ben-Shachar MS, Patil I, Makowski D. Extracting, Computing and exploring the parameters of statistical models using R. J Open Source Softw. 2020;5:2445.
doi: 10.21105/joss.02445
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing [Internet]. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. 2021. https://www.R-project.org/ .
RStudio Team. RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R [Internet]. Boston, MA: RStudio, PBC. 2020. http://www.rstudio.com/ .
JASP Team. JASP (Version 0.18.3)[Computer software] [Internet]. 2024. https://jasp-stats.org/ .
Brown J, Aczel B, Jiménez L, Kaufman SB, Grant KP. Intact implicit learning in autism spectrum conditions. Q J Exp Psychol. 2010;63:1789–812.
doi: 10.1080/17470210903536910
Foti F, De Crescenzo F, Vivanti G, Menghini D, Vicari S. Implicit learning in individuals with autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2015;45:897–910.
pubmed: 25126858
doi: 10.1017/S0033291714001950
Cook J, Hull L, Crane L, Mandy W. Camouflaging in autism: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2021;89:102080.
pubmed: 34563942
doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102080
Hull L, Petrides KV, Allison C, Smith P, Baron-Cohen S, Lai M-C, et al. Putting on my best normal: social camouflaging in adults with Autism Spectrum conditions. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47:2519–34.
pubmed: 28527095
pmcid: 5509825
doi: 10.1007/s10803-017-3166-5
Lai M-C, Lombardo MV, Ruigrok AN, Chakrabarti B, Auyeung B, Szatmari P, et al. Quantifying and exploring camouflaging in men and women with autism. Autism. 2017;21:690–702.
pubmed: 27899710
doi: 10.1177/1362361316671012
Livingston LA, Happé F. Conceptualising compensation in neurodevelopmental disorders: reflections from autism spectrum disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;80:729–42.
pubmed: 28642070
pmcid: 7374933
doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.005
Hull L, Lai M-C, Baron-Cohen S, Allison C, Smith P, Petrides KV, et al. Gender differences in self-reported camouflaging in autistic and non-autistic adults. Autism Int J Res Pract. 2020;24:352–63.
doi: 10.1177/1362361319864804
Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Skinner R, Martin J, Clubley E. The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. J Autism Dev Disord. 2001;31:5–17.
pubmed: 11439754
doi: 10.1023/A:1005653411471
Lacroix A, Nalborczyk L, Dutheil F, Kovarski K, Chokron S, Garrido M, et al. High spatial frequency filtered primes hastens happy faces categorization in autistic adults. Brain Cogn. 2021;155:105811.
pubmed: 34737127
doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2021.105811
Lacroix A, harquel sylvain, Mermillod M, Garrido M, Barbosa L, Vercueil L et al. Neural specificity of autistic women during social stimuli predictions [Internet]. PsyArXiv; 2023 Jun. https://osf.io/szqf8 .
Goldman S, Opinion. Sex, gender and the diagnosis of autism—A biosocial view of the male preponderance. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2013;7:675–9.
pubmed: 23687516
pmcid: 3655776
doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2013.02.006
Krahn TM, Fenton A. The Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism and the potential adverse effects for boys and girls with Autism. J Bioethical Inq. 2012;9:93–103.
doi: 10.1007/s11673-011-9350-y
Lai M-C, Lombardo MV, Pasco G, Ruigrok ANV, Wheelwright SJ, Sadek SA et al. JG Scott editor 2011 A behavioral comparison of male and female adults with high Functioning Autism Spectrum conditions. PLoS ONE 6 e20835.
pubmed: 21695147
pmcid: 3113855
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020835
Tillmann J, Ashwood K, Absoud M, Bölte S, Bonnet-Brilhault F, Buitelaar JK, et al. Evaluating sex and age differences in ADI-R and ADOS scores in a large European multi-site sample of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2018;48:2490–505.
pubmed: 29468576
pmcid: 5996001
doi: 10.1007/s10803-018-3510-4
Duvekot J, Van Der Ende J, Verhulst FC, Slappendel G, Van Daalen E, Maras A, et al. Factors influencing the probability of a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in girls versus boys. Autism. 2017;21:646–58.
pubmed: 27940569
doi: 10.1177/1362361316672178
McFayden TC, Putnam O, Grzadzinski R, Harrop C. Sex differences in the Developmental trajectories of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Curr Dev Disord Rep. 2023;10:80–91.
pubmed: 37635854
pmcid: 10457022
doi: 10.1007/s40474-023-00270-y
Hull L, Levy L, Lai M-C, Petrides K, Baron-Cohen S, Allison C, et al. Is social camouflaging associated with anxiety and depression in autistic adults? Mol Autism. 2021;12:1–13.
doi: 10.1186/s13229-021-00421-1
Tierney S, Burns J, Kilbey E. Looking behind the mask: Social coping strategies of girls on the autistic spectrum. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2016;23:73–83.
doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2015.11.013
Hull L, Mandy W. Protective effect or missed diagnosis? Females with autism spectrum disorder. Future Neurol. 2017;12:159–69.
doi: 10.2217/fnl-2017-0006
Bargiela S, Steward R, Mandy W. The experiences of late-diagnosed women with autism spectrum conditions: an investigation of the female autism phenotype. J Autism Dev Disord. 2016;46:3281–94.
pubmed: 27457364
pmcid: 5040731
doi: 10.1007/s10803-016-2872-8
Cook A, Ogden J, Winstone N. Friendship motivations, challenges and the role of masking for girls with autism in contrasting school settings. Eur J Spec Needs Educ. 2018;33:302–15.
doi: 10.1080/08856257.2017.1312797
Giarelli E, Wiggins LD, Rice CE, Levy SE, Kirby RS, Pinto-Martin J, et al. Sex differences in the evaluation and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders among children. Disabil Health J. 2010;3:107–16.
pubmed: 21122776
doi: 10.1016/j.dhjo.2009.07.001
Guitart-Masip M, Walsh A, Dayan P, Olsson A. Anxiety associated with perceived uncontrollable stress enhances expectations of environmental volatility and impairs reward learning. Sci Rep. 2023;13:18451.
pubmed: 37891204
pmcid: 10611750
doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-45179-z
Vrieze E, Pizzagalli DA, Demyttenaere K, Hompes T, Sienaert P, de Boer P, et al. Reduced reward learning predicts outcome in major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73:639–45.
pubmed: 23228328
doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.10.014
Pike AC, Robinson OJ. Reinforcement learning in patients with Mood and anxiety disorders vs Control individuals: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2022;79:313.
pubmed: 35234834
pmcid: 8892374
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0051
Bishop SJ, Gagne C. Anxiety, Depression, and decision making: a computational perspective. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2018;41:371–88.
pubmed: 29709209
doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-062007
Loijen A, Vrijsen JN, Egger JIM, Becker ES, Rinck M. Biased approach-avoidance tendencies in psychopathology: a systematic review of their assessment and modification. Clin Psychol Rev. 2020;77:101825.
pubmed: 32143108
doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101825
Radke S, Güths F, André JA, Müller BW, de Bruijn ERA. In action or inaction? Social approach–avoidance tendencies in major depression. Psychiatry Res. 2014;219:513–7.
pubmed: 25060832
doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.07.011
Seidel E-M, Habel U, Finkelmeyer A, Schneider F, Gur RC, Derntl B. Implicit and explicit behavioral tendencies in male and female depression. Psychiatry Res. 2010;177:124–30.
pubmed: 20199811
doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2010.02.001
Leung FYN, Sin J, Dawson C, Ong JH, Zhao C, Veić A, et al. Emotion recognition across visual and auditory modalities in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dev Rev. 2022;63:101000.
doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2021.101000
Kang E, Keifer CM, Levy EJ, Foss-Feig JH, McPartland JC, Lerner MD. Atypicality of the N170 event-related potential in Autism Spectrum disorder: a Meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2018;3:657–66.
pubmed: 30092916
Pellicano E, Adams D, Crane L, Hollingue C, Allen C, Almendinger K et al. A possible threat to data integrity for online qualitative autism research. Autism. 2023;13623613231174543.
Lehnhardt F-G, Falter CM, Gawronski A, Pfeiffer K, Tepest R, Franklin J, et al. Sex-related cognitive profile in autism spectrum disorders diagnosed late in life: implications for the female autistic phenotype. J Autism Dev Disord. 2016;46:139–54.
pubmed: 26319250
doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2558-7
Virués-Ortega J. Applied behavior analytic intervention for autism in early childhood: Meta-analysis, meta-regression and dose–response meta-analysis of multiple outcomes. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30:387–99.
pubmed: 20223569
doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.01.008
Belcher HL, Morein-Zamir S, Mandy W, Ford RM. Camouflaging intent, First impressions, and age of ASC Diagnosis in autistic men and women. J Autism Dev Disord. 2022;52:3413–26.
pubmed: 34342806
doi: 10.1007/s10803-021-05221-3
Kohls G, Chevallier C, Troiani V, Schultz RT. Social wanting dysfunction in autism: neurobiological underpinnings and treatment implications. J Neurodev Disord. 2012;4:10.
pubmed: 22958468
pmcid: 3436671
doi: 10.1186/1866-1955-4-10
Dichter GS, Felder JN, Green SR, Rittenberg AM, Sasson NJ, Bodfish JW. Reward circuitry function in autism spectrum disorders. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2012;7:160–72.
pubmed: 21148176
doi: 10.1093/scan/nsq095
Müller R-A, Fishman I. Brain Connectivity and Neuroimaging of Social Networks in Autism. Trends Cogn Sci. 2018;22:1103–16.
pubmed: 30391214
pmcid: 7080636
doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.09.008