Five lessons for avoiding failure when scaling in conservation.
Journal
Nature ecology & evolution
ISSN: 2397-334X
Titre abrégé: Nat Ecol Evol
Pays: England
ID NLM: 101698577
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
06 Sep 2024
06 Sep 2024
Historique:
received:
12
01
2024
accepted:
09
07
2024
medline:
7
9
2024
pubmed:
7
9
2024
entrez:
6
9
2024
Statut:
aheadofprint
Résumé
Many attempts to scale conservation actions have failed to deliver their intended benefits, caused unintended harm or later been abandoned, hampering efforts to bend the curve on biodiversity loss. Here we encourage those calling for scaling to pause and reflect on past scaling efforts, which offer valuable lessons: the total impact of an action depends on both its effectiveness and scalability; effectiveness can change depending on scale for multiple reasons; feedback processes can change socio-ecological conditions influencing future adoption; and the drive to scale can incentivize bad practices that undermine long-term outcomes. Cutting across these themes is the recognition that monitoring scaling can enhance evidence-informed adaptive management, reporting and research. We draw on evidence and concepts from disparate fields, explore new linkages between often isolated concepts and suggest strategies for practitioners, policymakers and researchers. Reflecting on these five lessons may help in the scaling of effective conservation actions in responsible ways to meet the triple goals of reversing biodiversity loss, combating climate change and supporting human wellbeing.
Identifiants
pubmed: 39242871
doi: 10.1038/s41559-024-02507-4
pii: 10.1038/s41559-024-02507-4
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Subventions
Organisme : Leverhulme Trust
ID : RPG-2021-440
Organisme : Leverhulme Trust
ID : RPG-2021-440
Organisme : Leverhulme Trust
ID : RPG-2021-440
Informations de copyright
© 2024. Springer Nature Limited.
Références
Langhammer, P. F. et al. The positive impact of conservation action. Science 384, 453–458 (2024).
pubmed: 38662833
doi: 10.1126/science.adj6598
Bradshaw, C. J. A. et al. Underestimating the challenges of avoiding a ghastly future. Front. Conserv. Sci. 1, 615419 (2021).
doi: 10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419
Leclère, D. et al. Bending the curve of terrestrial biodiversity needs an integrated strategy. Nature 585, 551–556 (2020).
pubmed: 32908312
doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2705-y
Newing, H. & Perram, A. What do you know about conservation and human rights? Oryx 53, 595–596 (2019).
doi: 10.1017/S0030605319000917
Baldwin-Cantello, W. et al. The triple challenge: synergies, trade-offs and integrated responses for climate, biodiversity, and human wellbeing goals. Clim. Policy 23, 782–799 (2023).
doi: 10.1080/14693062.2023.2175637
Mascia, M. B. & Mills, M. When conservation goes viral: the diffusion of innovative biodiversity conservation policies and practices. Conserv. Lett. 11, e12442 (2018).
doi: 10.1111/conl.12442
Oldekop, J. A., Sims, K. R. E., Karna, B. K., Whittingham, M. J. & Agrawal, A. Reductions in deforestation and poverty from decentralized forest management in Nepal. Nat. Sustain. 2, 421–428 (2019).
doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0277-3
Gelcich, S. et al. Fishers’ perceptions on the Chilean coastal TURF system after two decades: problems, benefits, and emerging needs. Bull. Mar. Sci. 93, 53–67 (2017).
doi: 10.5343/bms.2015.1082
Romero, P. & Melo, O. Can a territorial use right for fisheries management make a difference for fishing communities? Mar. Policy 124, 104359 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104359
Friess, D. A. et al. Achieving ambitious mangrove restoration targets will need a transdisciplinary and evidence-informed approach. One Earth 5, 456–460 (2022).
doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2022.04.013
Coleman, E. A. et al. Limited effects of tree planting on forest canopy cover and rural livelihoods in Northern India. Nat. Sustain. 4, 997–1004 (2021).
doi: 10.1038/s41893-021-00761-z
West, T. A. P. et al. Action needed to make carbon offsets from forest conservation work for climate change mitigation. Science 381, 873–877 (2023).
pubmed: 37616370
doi: 10.1126/science.ade3535
Bluwstein, J. et al. Between dependence and deprivation: the interlocking nature of land alienation in Tanzania. J. Agar. Change 18, 806–830 (2018).
doi: 10.1111/joac.12271
Homewood, K., Nielsen, M. R. & Keane, A. Women, wellbeing and Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania. J. Peasant Stud. 49, 335–362 (2022).
doi: 10.1080/03066150.2020.1726323
Keane, A. et al. Impact of Tanzania’s Wildlife Management Areas on household wealth. Nat. Sustain. 3, 226–233 (2020).
doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0458-0
O’Garra, T. et al. National-level evaluation of a community-based marine management initiative. Nat. Sustain. 6, 908–918 (2023).
doi: 10.1038/s41893-023-01123-7
Larrosa, C., Carrasco, L. R. & Milner-Gulland, E. J. Unintended feedbacks: challenges and opportunities for improving conservation effectiveness. Conserv. Lett. 9, 316–326 (2016).
doi: 10.1111/conl.12240
Polasky, S. You can’t always get what you want: conservation planning with feedback effects. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 5245–5246 (2006).
pubmed: 16567653
pmcid: 1459338
doi: 10.1073/pnas.0601348103
Pearson, D. E., Clark, T. J. & Hahn, P. G. Evaluating unintended consequences of intentional species introductions and eradications for improved conservation management. Conserv. Biol. 36, e13734 (2022).
pubmed: 33734489
doi: 10.1111/cobi.13734
Saeed, A.-R., McDermott, C. & Boyd, E. Are REDD+ community forest projects following the principles for collective action, as proposed by Ostrom? Int. J. Commons 11, 572–596 (2017).
doi: 10.18352/ijc.700
Bayrak, M. & Marafa, L. Ten years of REDD+: a critical review of the impact of REDD+ on forest-dependent communities. Sustainability 8, 620 (2016).
doi: 10.3390/su8070620
Massarella, K., Sallu, S. M., Ensor, J. E. & Marchant, R. REDD+, hype, hope and disappointment: the dynamics of expectations in conservation and development pilot projects. World Dev. 109, 375–385 (2018).
doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.006
Fleischman, F. et al. How politics shapes the outcomes of forest carbon finance. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 51, 7–14 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2021.01.007
Gurney, G. G. et al. Poverty and protected areas: an evaluation of a marine integrated conservation and development project in Indonesia. Glob. Environ. Change 26, 98–107 (2014).
doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.04.003
Catalano, A. S., Lyons-White, J., Mills, M. M. & Knight, A. T. Learning from published project failures in conservation. Biol. Conserv. 238, 108223 (2019).
doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108223
Woltering, L., Fehlenberg, K., Gerard, B., Ubels, J. & Cooley, L. Scaling—from “reaching many” to sustainable systems change at scale: a critical shift in mindset. Agric. Syst. 176, 102652 (2019).
doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102652
Higginbottom, T. P., Adhikari, R., Dimova, R., Redicker, S. & Foster, T. Performance of large-scale irrigation projects in sub-Saharan Africa. Nat. Sustain. 4, 501–508 (2021).
doi: 10.1038/s41893-020-00670-7
McLean, R. & Gargani, J. Scaling Impact: Innovation for the Public Good (Routledge, 2019).
Milner-Gulland, E. J. et al. Four steps for the Earth: mainstreaming the post-2020 global biodiversity framework. One Earth 4, 75–87 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.011
Cook-Patton, S. C. et al. Protect, manage and then restore lands for climate mitigation. Nat. Clim. Change 11, 1027–1034 (2021).
doi: 10.1038/s41558-021-01198-0
Salafsky, N. et al. A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: unified classifications of threats and actions. Conserv. Biol. 22, 897–911 (2008).
pubmed: 18544093
doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00937.x
Conservation Actions Classification (V1.0) https://conservationstandards.org/library-item/conservation-actions-classification-v1-0/#:~:text=Conservation%20Actions%20are%20interventions%20undertaken,setting%20up%20a%20protected%20area (Conservation Standards, 2019).
Lam, D. P. M. et al. Scaling the impact of sustainability initiatives: a typology of amplification processes. Urban Transform. 2, 3 (2020).
doi: 10.1186/s42854-020-00007-9
Moore, M.-L., Riddell, D. & Vocisano, D.Scaling out, scaling up, scaling deep: strategies of non-profits in advancing systemic social innovation.J. Corp. Citizenship 58, 67–84 (2015).
doi: 10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2015.ju.00009
Salafsky, N. & Margoluis, R. Pathways to Success: Taking Conservation to Scale in Complex Systems (Island Press, 2021).
Mills, M. et al. How conservation initiatives go to scale. Nat. Sustain. 2, 935–940 (2019).
doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0384-1
Hartmann, A. & Linn, J. F. Scaling Up: a Framework and Lessons for Development Effectiveness from Literature and Practice (Wolfensohn Center for Development, 2008).
Geels, F. W. Technological transitions as evolutionary reconfiguration processes: a multi-level perspective and a case-study. Res. Policy 31, 1257–1274 (2002).
doi: 10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00062-8
Lambin, E. F., Kim, H., Leape, J. & Lee, K. Scaling up solutions for a sustainability transition. One Earth 3, 89–96 (2020).
doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2020.06.010
Nielsen, K. S. et al. How psychology can help limit climate change. Am. Psychol. 76, 130–144 (2021).
pubmed: 32202817
doi: 10.1037/amp0000624
Klöckner, C. A. & Blöbaum, A. A comprehensive action determination model: toward a broader understanding of ecological behaviour using the example of travel mode choice. J. Environ. Psychol. 30, 574–586 (2010).
doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.03.001
Delaroche, M. Adoption of conservation practices: what have we learned from two decades of social-psychological approaches? Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 45, 25–35 (2020).
doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2020.08.004
Green, K. M., Crawford, B. A., Williamson, K. A. & DeWan, A. A. A meta-analysis of social marketing campaigns to improve global conservation outcomes. Soc. Mark. Q. 25, 69–87 (2019).
doi: 10.1177/1524500418824258
Rogers, E. M. Diffusion of Innovations 5th edn (Simon and Schuster, 2003).
Wigboldus, S. & Leeuwis, C. Towards Responsible Scaling Up and Out in Agricultural Development: An Exploration of Concepts and Principles (Centre for Development Innovation, 2013).
Markard, J., Raven, R. & Truffer, B. Sustainability transitions: an emerging field of research and its prospects. Res. Policy 41, 955–967 (2012).
doi: 10.1016/j.respol.2012.02.013
Tsing, A. L. On nonscalability: the living world is not amenable to precision-nested scales. Common Knowl. 18, 505–524 (2012).
doi: 10.1215/0961754X-1630424
Young, K. J. in Integrating Landscapes: Agroforestry for Biodiversity Conservation and Food Sovereignty (ed. Montagnini, F.) 179–209 (Springer International, 2017).
Spatz, D. R. et al. The global contribution of invasive vertebrate eradication as a key island restoration tool. Sci. Rep. 12, 13391 (2022).
pubmed: 35948555
pmcid: 9365850
doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-14982-5
Sutherland, W. J., Dicks, L. V., Petrovan, S. O. & Smith, R. K. What Works in Conservation 2021 (Open Book Publishers, 2021).
Tauli, J. C. Only a human rights-based approach will address biodiversity loss. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 6, 1050–1051 (2022).
pubmed: 35668127
doi: 10.1038/s41559-022-01796-x
Pienkowski, T. et al. Supporting conservationists’ mental health through better working conditions. Conserv. Biol. 37, e14097 (2023).
pubmed: 37042093
doi: 10.1111/cobi.14097
Strassburg, B. B. N. et al. Strategic approaches to restoring ecosystems can triple conservation gains and halve costs. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 62–70 (2019).
pubmed: 30568285
doi: 10.1038/s41559-018-0743-8
Geels, F. W. The multi-level perspective on sustainability transitions: responses to seven criticisms. Environ. Innov. Soc. Transit. 1, 24–40 (2011).
doi: 10.1016/j.eist.2011.02.002
Owen, R. et al. in Responsible Innovation: Managing the Responsible Emergence of Science and Innovation in Society 27–50 (John Wiley & Sons, 2013).
Pettorelli, N. et al. Time to integrate global climate change and biodiversity science-policy agendas. J. Appl. Ecol. 58, 2384–2393 (2021).
doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.13985
Pullin, A. S. & Knight, T. M. Effectiveness in conservation practice: pointers from medicine and public health. Conserv. Biol. 15, 50–54 (2001).
doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2001.99499.x
Sutherland, W. J., Pullin, A. S., Dolman, P. M. & Knight, T. M. The need for evidence-based conservation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19, 305–308 (2004).
pubmed: 16701275
doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018
Nielsen, K. S. et al. Improving climate change mitigation analysis: a framework for examining feasibility. One Earth 3, 325–336 (2020).
doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2020.08.007
Nielsen, K. S., Nicholas, K. A., Creutzig, F., Dietz, T. & Stern, P. C. The role of high-socioeconomic-status people in locking in or rapidly reducing energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions. Nat. Energy 6, 1011–1016 (2021).
doi: 10.1038/s41560-021-00900-y
Battista, W., Tourgee, A., Wu, C. & Fujita, R. How to achieve conservation outcomes at scale: an evaluation of scaling principles. Front. Mar. Sci. 3, 278 (2017).
doi: 10.3389/fmars.2016.00278
Romero-de-Diego, C. et al. Drivers of adoption and spread of wildlife management initiatives in Mexico. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3, e438 (2021).
doi: 10.1111/csp2.438
Lewis-Brown, E. et al. The importance of future generations and conflict management in conservation.Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3, e488 (2021).
doi: 10.1111/csp2.488
Clark, M., Andrews, J. & Hillis, V. A quantitative application of diffusion of innovations for modeling the spread of conservation behaviors. Ecol. Model. 473, 110145 (2022).
doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.110145
Abernethy, K. E., Bodin, Ö., Olsson, P., Hilly, Z. & Schwarz, A. Two steps forward, two steps back: the role of innovation in transforming towards community-based marine resource management in Solomon Islands. Glob. Environ. Change 28, 309–321 (2014).
doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.07.008
Pienkowski, T. et al. Spatial predictors of landowners’ engagement in the restoration of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. OSF Preprints https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/bxdzm (2024).
Piñeiro, V. et al. A scoping review on incentives for adoption of sustainable agricultural practices and their outcomes. Nat. Sustain. 3, 809–820 (2020).
doi: 10.1038/s41893-020-00617-y
Pannell, D. J. et al. Understanding and promoting adoption of conservation practices by rural landholders. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 46, 1407–1424 (2006).
doi: 10.1071/EA05037
Sutherland, W. J. et al. Building a tool to overcome barriers in research-implementation spaces: the Conservation Evidence database. Biol. Conserv. 238, 108199 (2019).
doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108199
Sutherland, W. J. & Wordley, C. F. R. Evidence complacency hampers conservation. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 1, 1215–1216 (2017).
pubmed: 29046534
doi: 10.1038/s41559-017-0244-1
Cook, C. N., Hockings, M. & Carter, R. W. Conservation in the dark? The information used to support management decisions. Front. Ecol. Environ. 8, 181–186 (2010).
doi: 10.1890/090020
Steg, L. & Vlek, C. Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: an integrative review and research agenda. J. Environ. Psychol. 29, 309–317 (2009).
doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004
St John, F. A., Edwards-Jones, G. & Jones, J. P. Conservation and human behaviour: lessons from social psychology. Wildl. Res. 37, 658–667 (2010).
doi: 10.1071/WR10032
Mahajan, S. L. et al. A theory-based framework for understanding the establishment, persistence, and diffusion of community-based conservation. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3, e299 (2021).
doi: 10.1111/csp2.299
Christie, A. P. et al. A practical conservation tool to combine diverse types of evidence for transparent evidence-based decision-making. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 4, e579 (2022).
doi: 10.1111/csp2.579
Cook, C. N., Pullin, A. S., Sutherland, W. J., Stewart, G. B. & Carrasco, L. R. Considering cost alongside the effectiveness of management in evidence-based conservation: a systematic reporting protocol. Biol. Conserv. 209, 508–516 (2017).
doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2017.03.022
Jagadish, A., Mills, M. & Mascia, M. B. Catalyzing Conservation at Scale: A Practitioner’s Handbook (version 0.1) (Conservation International & Imperial College London, 2021).
Hofman, J. M., Sharma, A. & Watts, D. J. Prediction and explanation in social systems. Science 355, 486–488 (2017).
pubmed: 28154051
doi: 10.1126/science.aal3856
Clark, M. et al. Forecasting adoption with epidemiological models can enable adaptively scaling out conservation. One Earth (in the press).
Jørgensen, A. C. S. et al. Forecasting the adoption and spread of a community-based marine management initiative using agent-based models. Preprint at bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.16.599026 (2024).
Jagadish, A. et al. Scaling Indigenous-led natural resource management. Glob. Environ. Change 84, 102799 (2024).
doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102799
Lund, J. F., Sungusia, E., Mabele, M. B. & Scheba, A. Promising change, delivering continuity: REDD+ as conservation fad. World Dev. 89, 124–139 (2017).
doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.08.005
Billé, R. Action without change? On the use and usefulness of pilot experiments in environmental management. S. A. P. I. EN. S 3, 1–6 (2010).
Rampling, E. E., Zu Ermgassen, S. O. S. E., Hawkins, I. & Bull, J. W. Achieving biodiversity net gain by addressing governance gaps underpinning ecological compensation policies. Conserv. Biol. 38, e14198 (2024).
pubmed: 37811729
doi: 10.1111/cobi.14198
Clark, M., Hamad, H. M., Andrews, J., Hillis, V. & Borgerhoff Mulder, M. Quantifying local perceptions of environmental change and links to community-based conservation practices. Conserv. Biol. 38, e14259 (2024).
pubmed: 38571448
doi: 10.1111/cobi.14259
Borgerhoff Mulder, M., Caro, T. & Ngwali, A. S. A silver lining to REDD: institutional growth despite programmatic failure. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3, e312 (2021).
doi: 10.1111/csp2.312
Skinner, C. A. et al. Social Outcomes of the CARE–WWF Alliance in Mozambique: Research Findings from a Decade of Integrated Conservation and Development Programming (CARE Evaluations, 2019).
Breaugh, J., McBride, K., Kleinaltenkamp, M. & Hammerschmid, G. Beyond diffusion: a systematic literature review of innovation scaling. Sustainability 13, 13528 (2021).
doi: 10.3390/su132413528
Roe, D., Nelson, F. & Sandbrook, C. Community Management of Natural Resources in Africa: Impacts, Experiences and Future Directions (International Institute for Environment and Development, 2009).
Government of Kenya. Kenyan Wildlife Conservation and Management Act, 2013 (2013).
Government of Malawi. Forestry Act, 1997 (1997).
Meadows, D. Places to intervene in a system. Whole Earth 91, 78–84 (1997).
Abson, D. J. et al. Leverage points for sustainability transformation. Ambio 46, 30–39 (2017).
pubmed: 27344324
doi: 10.1007/s13280-016-0800-y
Lenton, T. M. et al. Operationalising positive tipping points towards global sustainability. Glob. Sustain. 5, e1 (2022).
doi: 10.1017/sus.2021.30
Carpenter, C. Power in Conservation: Environmental Anthropology Beyond Political Ecology 1st edn (Routledge, 2020).
Shackleton, R. T. et al. Navigating power in conservation. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 5, e12877 (2023).
doi: 10.1111/csp2.12877
Dandy, N., Fiorini, S. & Davies, A. L. Agenda-setting and power in collaborative natural resource management. Environ. Conserv. 41, 311–320 (2014).
doi: 10.1017/S0376892913000441
Shibaike, T. Small NGOs and agenda-setting in global conservation governance: the case of pangolin conservation. Glob. Environ. Polit. 22, 45–69 (2022).
doi: 10.1162/glep_a_00623
Tallis, H. & Lubchenco, J. Working together: a call for inclusive conservation. Nature 515, 27–28 (2014).
pubmed: 25373659
doi: 10.1038/515027a
Sandbrook, C. Weak yet strong: the uneven power relations of conservation. Oryx 51, 379–380 (2017).
doi: 10.1017/S0030605317000618
Crosman, K. M., Singh, G. G. & Lang, S. Confronting complex accountability in conservation with communities. Front. Mar. Sci. 8, 709423 (2021).
doi: 10.3389/fmars.2021.709423
Benjaminsen, T. A., Goldman, M. J., Minwary, M. Y. & Maganga, F. P. Wildlife management in Tanzania: state control, rent seeking and community resistance. Dev. Change 44, 1087–1109 (2013).
doi: 10.1111/dech.12055
Green, K. E. & Adams, W. M. Green grabbing and the dynamics of local-level engagement with neoliberalization in Tanzania’s wildlife management areas. J. Peasant Stud. 42, 97–117 (2015).
doi: 10.1080/03066150.2014.967686
Bluwstein, J. & Lund, J. F. Territoriality by conservation in the Selous–Niassa Corridor in Tanzania. World Dev. 101, 453–465 (2018).
doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.09.010
Schetter, C., Mkutu, K. & Müller-Koné, M. Frontier NGOs: conservancies, control, and violence in northern Kenya. World Dev. 151, 105735 (2022).
doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105735
Cannon, J. Allegations of displacement, violence beleaguer Kenyan conservancy NGO. Mongabay https://news.mongabay.com/2021/11/allegations-of-displacement-violence-beleaguer-kenyan-conservancy-ngo/ (2021).
International Labour Organization. Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (1989).
Bennett, N. J. et al. Local support for conservation is associated with perceptions of good governance, social impacts, and ecological effectiveness. Conserv. Lett. 12, e12640 (2019).
doi: 10.1111/conl.12640
Bixler, R. P. et al. Network governance for large-scale natural resource conservation and the challenge of capture. Front. Ecol. Environ. 14, 165–171 (2016).
doi: 10.1002/fee.1252
The State of Finance for Nature in the G20 Report: Leading by Example to Close the Investment Gap (United Nations Environment Programme, 2022).
Osborne, T. Tradeoffs in carbon commodification: a political ecology of common property forest governance. Geoforum 67, 64–77 (2015).
doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.10.007
Rocliffe, S. & Quinlan, R. Why conservation needs a new way to scale. Stanford Social Innovation Review https://ssir.org/articles/entry/why_conservation_needs_a_new_way_to_scale# (2020).
Gurney, G. G. et al. Biodiversity needs every tool in the box: use OECMs. Nature 595, 646–649 (2021).
pubmed: 34312552
doi: 10.1038/d41586-021-02041-4
McCarthy, M. A. & Possingham, H. P. Active adaptive management for conservation. Conserv. Biol. 21, 956–963 (2007).
pubmed: 17650246
doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00677.x
Stephenson, P. J. The Holy Grail of biodiversity conservation management: monitoring impact in projects and project portfolios. Perspect. Ecol. Conserv. 17, 182–192 (2019).
Wigboldus, S. et al. Systemic perspectives on scaling agricultural innovations. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 36, 46 (2016).
doi: 10.1007/s13593-016-0380-z
Project portfolio. Green Climate Fund https://www.greenclimate.fund/projects?f=field_status:445 (2023).
Annual Report and Accounts 2021 (Fauna and Flora International, 2021).
Conservation International & World Wildlife Fund. PADDDtracker Data Release Version 2.1. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4974336 . (2021)
Ruiz-Miranda, C. R., Vilchis, L. I. & Swaisgood, R. R. Exit strategies for wildlife conservation: why they are rare and why every institution needs one. Front. Ecol. Environ. 18, 203–210 (2020).
doi: 10.1002/fee.2163
Le Cornu, E. et al. Conceptualizing responsible exits in conservation philanthropy. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 5, e12868 (2023).
doi: 10.1111/csp2.12868
Razafimahatratra, H. M., Bignebat, C., David-Benz, H., Bélières, J.-F. & Penot, E. Tryout and (dis)adoption of conservation agriculture. Evidence from Western Madagascar. Land Use Policy 100, 104929 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104929
Habanyati, E. J., Nyanga, P. H. & Umar, B. B. Factors contributing to disadoption of conservation agriculture among smallholder farmers in Petauke, Zambia. Kasetsart J. Soc. Sci. 41, 91–96 (2019).
Pedzisa, T., Rugube, L., Winter-Nelson, A., Baylis, K. & Mazvimavi, K. Abandonment of conservation agriculture by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. J. Sustain. Dev. 8, 561–575 (2015).
doi: 10.5539/jsd.v8n1p69
Overview of all CFMGs https://cfmg.mgee.gov.zm/cfmg/map (Government of Zambia, 2023).
Data Reporting Tool for MEAs—DaRT https://dart.informea.org/ (United Nations Environment Programme, 2023).
Wigboldus, S. & Brouwers, J. Using a Theory of Scaling to Guide Decision Making. Towards a Structured Approach to Support Responsible Scaling of Innovations in the Context of Agrifood Systems (Wageningen University and Research, 2016).
Sartas, M. et al. Scaling Readiness: Concepts, Practices, and Implementation. 1–217 (CGIAR, 2020).
Sartas, M., Schut, M., Proietti, C., Thiele, G. & Leeuwis, C. Scaling readiness: science and practice of an approach to enhance impact of research for development. Agric. Syst. 183, 102874 (2020).
doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102874
Growing Trees, Growing Leaders! Farmer-Powered, Time-Tested Afforestation https://program.tist.org/ (The International Small Group and Tree Planting Programme, 2023).
Benjamin, E. O. & Blum, M. Participation of smallholders in agrofoestry agri-environmental scheme: a lesson from the rural mount Kenyan region. J. Dev. Areas 49, 127–143 (2015).
doi: 10.1353/jda.2015.0125
Benjamin, E. O. & Sauer, J. The cost effectiveness of payments for ecosystem services—smallholders and agroforestry in Africa. Land Use Policy 71, 293–302 (2018).
doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.12.001
De Giusti, G., Kristjanson, P. & Rufino, M. C. Agroforestry as a climate change mitigation practice in smallholder farming: evidence from Kenya. Climatic Change 153, 379–394 (2019).
doi: 10.1007/s10584-019-02390-0
Buxton, J. et al. Community-driven tree planting greens the neighbouring landscape. Sci. Rep. 11, 18239 (2021).
pubmed: 34521871
pmcid: 8440767
doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-96973-6
Masiga, M., Yankel, C. & Iberre, C. The International Small Group Tree Planting Program (TIST) Kenya. Institutional Analysis and Capacity Building of African Agricultural Carbon Projects Case Study (CCAFS, 2012).
Marshall, J. H. Analysing the Dynamics of “Positive Tipping Points” in The International Small Group and Tree Planting Program (TIST) from a Systems Thinking Perspective. MSc thesis, Univ. Exeter (2022).
Benjamin, E. O., Ola, O. & Buchenrieder, G. Does an agroforestry scheme with payment for ecosystem services (PES) economically empower women in sub-Saharan Africa? Ecosyst. Serv. 31, 1–11 (2018).
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.03.004
Benjamin, E. O., Blum, M. & Punt, M. The impact of extension and ecosystem services on smallholder’s credit constraint. J. Dev. Areas 50, 333–350 (2016).
doi: 10.1353/jda.2016.0020