Diurnal variation of psychomotor, cognitive and physical performances in schoolchildren: sex comparison.
Attention
Mental flexibility
Performance
Schoolchildren
Time of day
Journal
BMC pediatrics
ISSN: 1471-2431
Titre abrégé: BMC Pediatr
Pays: England
ID NLM: 100967804
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
17 Oct 2024
17 Oct 2024
Historique:
received:
23
11
2023
accepted:
10
10
2024
medline:
17
10
2024
pubmed:
17
10
2024
entrez:
16
10
2024
Statut:
epublish
Résumé
The present study investigated the effect of time of day (08h00 vs. 11h00 vs. 14h00 vs. 17h00) and sex (girls vs. boys) on physical (i.e., five jump test (5JT), push-ball test and 5 m shuttle run test (5mSRT)), cognitive (i.e., attention) and mental (i.e., mental flexibility) performances. Thirty schoolchildren, equally divided in girls (n = 15; age: 9.60 ± 0.51 years) and boys (n = 15; age: 9.40 ± 0.51 years) performed the digit cancellation test, the trail making test, the 5JT, the 2 kg push-ball test and the 5mSRT in a counterbalanced and cross over study design at 08h00, 11h00, 14h00 and 17h00 with 48 h of rest in between. Additionally, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was determined after each repetition of the 5mSRT and the average of the score (i.e., sum of RPE scores divided by 6) was determined. Results showed that RPE at the end of the test was significantly higher at 11h00 compared to 08h00 (p = 0.02) and 14h00 (p = 0.001) and average RPE was higher at 11h00 compared to 08h00 (p = 0.001). Likewise, attention was significantly higher at 08h00 compared to 17h00 (p = 0.001) before and after the 5mSRT test only in girls. However, 5JT performance was significantly lower at 17h00, both in girls and boys, compared to at 08h00 (p = 0.02 and p = 0.001 respectively), 11h00 (p = 0.004 and p = 0.001 respectively) and 14h00 (p = 0.001 and p = 0.001 respectively). However, push-ball (p = 0.086) and 5mSRT performances [best distance (p = 0.173), total distance (p = 0.306), mean distance (p = 0.29), fatigue index (p = 0.06)] were time of day independent. Mental flexibility was significantly higher at 08h00, 11h00 and 14h00 compared to 17h00 (p = 0.001). Mental flexibility, attention and jump performances were time of day dependent and push-ball test and 5mSRT performances did not change according to the time of day. Also, no clear sex effect was found on the diurnal variation of mental, cognitive and physical performances.
Sections du résumé
BACKGROUND
BACKGROUND
The present study investigated the effect of time of day (08h00 vs. 11h00 vs. 14h00 vs. 17h00) and sex (girls vs. boys) on physical (i.e., five jump test (5JT), push-ball test and 5 m shuttle run test (5mSRT)), cognitive (i.e., attention) and mental (i.e., mental flexibility) performances.
METHODS
METHODS
Thirty schoolchildren, equally divided in girls (n = 15; age: 9.60 ± 0.51 years) and boys (n = 15; age: 9.40 ± 0.51 years) performed the digit cancellation test, the trail making test, the 5JT, the 2 kg push-ball test and the 5mSRT in a counterbalanced and cross over study design at 08h00, 11h00, 14h00 and 17h00 with 48 h of rest in between. Additionally, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was determined after each repetition of the 5mSRT and the average of the score (i.e., sum of RPE scores divided by 6) was determined.
RESULTS
RESULTS
Results showed that RPE at the end of the test was significantly higher at 11h00 compared to 08h00 (p = 0.02) and 14h00 (p = 0.001) and average RPE was higher at 11h00 compared to 08h00 (p = 0.001). Likewise, attention was significantly higher at 08h00 compared to 17h00 (p = 0.001) before and after the 5mSRT test only in girls. However, 5JT performance was significantly lower at 17h00, both in girls and boys, compared to at 08h00 (p = 0.02 and p = 0.001 respectively), 11h00 (p = 0.004 and p = 0.001 respectively) and 14h00 (p = 0.001 and p = 0.001 respectively). However, push-ball (p = 0.086) and 5mSRT performances [best distance (p = 0.173), total distance (p = 0.306), mean distance (p = 0.29), fatigue index (p = 0.06)] were time of day independent. Mental flexibility was significantly higher at 08h00, 11h00 and 14h00 compared to 17h00 (p = 0.001).
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSIONS
Mental flexibility, attention and jump performances were time of day dependent and push-ball test and 5mSRT performances did not change according to the time of day. Also, no clear sex effect was found on the diurnal variation of mental, cognitive and physical performances.
Identifiants
pubmed: 39415109
doi: 10.1186/s12887-024-05145-8
pii: 10.1186/s12887-024-05145-8
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Comparative Study
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
667Informations de copyright
© 2024. The Author(s).
Références
Singh A, Uijtdewilligen L, Twisk JWR, van Mechelen W, Chinapaw MJM. Physical activity and performance at School: a systematic review of the literature including a Methodological Quality Assessment. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166(1):49–55.
pubmed: 22213750
doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.716
Chang YK, Labban JD, Gapin JI, Etnier JL. The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Brain Res. 2012;1453:87–101.
pubmed: 22480735
doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068
Gallotta MC, Guidetti L, Franciosi E, Emerenziani GP, Bonavolontà V, Baldari C. Effects of varying type of exertion on children’s attention capacity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(3):550–5.
pubmed: 21814148
doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182305552
Wile AJ, Shouppe GA. Does Time-of-day of instruction impact class achievement? Perspect Learn. 2011;12(1):9.
Ammons TL. And Others. The Effects of Time of Day on Student Attention and Achievement [Internet]. 1995 [cited 2019 Aug 23]. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED384592
van den Berg V, Saliasi E, de Groot RHM, Jolles J, Chinapaw MJM, Singh AS. Physical activity in the School setting: cognitive performance is not affected by three different types of Acute Exercise. Front Psychol. 2016;7:723.
pubmed: 27242629
pmcid: 4868849
Chtourou H, Souissi N. The Effect of Training at a specific time of day: a review. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(7):1984–2005.
pubmed: 22531613
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825770a7
Masmoudi L, Gharbi A, Chtourou H, Souissi N. Effect of time of day on soccer specific skills in children: psychological and physiological responses. Biol Rhythm Res. 2016;47(1):59–68.
doi: 10.1080/09291016.2015.1073888
Rueda MR, Cómbita LM, Pozuelos JP. Cognitive training in Childhood and Adolescence. In: Strobach T, Karbach J, editors. Cognitive training: an overview of features and applications [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2021. pp. 127–39.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_9
Quka N, Selenica R. Physical fitness on academic performance in Youth. Eur J Med Nat Sci. 2022;5(1):1–8.
Páez-Maldonado JA, Reigal RE, Morillo-Baro JP, Carrasco-Beltrán H, Hernández-Mendo A, Morales-Sánchez V. Physical fitness, selective attention and academic performance in a pre-adolescent sample. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(17):6216.
pubmed: 32867113
pmcid: 7504082
doi: 10.3390/ijerph17176216
Wick K, Kriemler S, Granacher U. Associations between measures of physical fitness and cognitive performance in preschool children. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2022;14(1):80.
pubmed: 35501890
pmcid: 9063064
doi: 10.1186/s13102-022-00470-w
Cid FM, Muñoz HD. Physical exercise and academic performance. MOJ Sports Med. 2017;1(4):00021.
Gallen CL, Schaerlaeken S, Younger JW, Anguera JA, Gazzaley A. Contribution of sustained attention abilities to real-world academic skills in children. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):2673.
pubmed: 36792755
pmcid: 9932079
doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-29427-w
Finn AS, Kraft MA, West MR, Leonard JA, Bish CE, Martin RE, Sheridan MA, Gabrieli CFO, Gabrieli JD. Cognitive skills, student achievement tests, and schools. Psychol Sci. 2014;25(3):736–44.
pubmed: 24434238
doi: 10.1177/0956797613516008
Dikmen M. The mediating role of learning styles and strategies in the relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance. J Educational Issues. 2020;6(2):351–73.
doi: 10.5296/jei.v6i2.17789
Sousa M, Moreira CS, Cruz O, Cruz S. Cognitive flexibility and academic performance of children in care and children from a community sample: the contrasting mediator effect of task persistence. Educ Dev Psychol. 2023;40(2):282–98.
Magalhães S, Carneiro L, Limpo T, Filipe M. Executive functions predict literacy and mathematics achievements: the unique contribution of cognitive flexibility in grades 2, 4, and 6. Child Neuropsychol. 2020;26(7):934–52.
pubmed: 32200681
doi: 10.1080/09297049.2020.1740188
Demetriou A, Makris N, Tachmatzidis D, Kazi S, Spanoudis G. Decomposing the influence of mental processes on academic performance. Intelligence. 2019;77:101404.
doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2019.101404
de Santana AN, Roazzi A, Nobre APMC. The relationship between cognitive flexibility and mathematical performance in children: a meta-analysis. Trends Neurosci Educ. 2022;28:100179.
pubmed: 35999015
doi: 10.1016/j.tine.2022.100179
Testu F, Chronopsychologie. et rythmes scolaires Revue française de pédagogie. 1990;93:127 – 30. 22.
Jarraya S, Jarraya M, Souissi N. Diurnal variations of cognitive performances in Tunisian children. Biol Rhythm Res. 2014;45(1):61–7.
doi: 10.1080/09291016.2013.797640
Tomkinson GR, Carver KD, Atkinson F, Daniell ND, Lewis LK, Fitzgerald JS, Lang JJ, Ortega FB. European normative values for physical fitness in children and adolescents aged 9–17 years: results from 2 779 165 eurofit performances representing 30 countries. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52(22):1445–563.
pubmed: 29191931
doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098253
Loukid M, Montero P. Croissance des enfants de la ville de Marrakech (Maroc): analyse comparative avec des enfants espagnols. Bull Mém Société Anthropol Paris. 1991;3(3):211–24.
doi: 10.3406/bmsap.1991.1783
Armstrong N, Welsman JR. Aerobic fitness: what are we measuring? Med Sport Sci. 2007;50:5–25.
pubmed: 17387249
doi: 10.1159/000101073
Rowland TW. Evolution of maximal oxygen uptake in children. Med Sport Sci. 2007;50:200–9.
pubmed: 17387259
doi: 10.1159/000101392
Armstrong N, Van Mechelen W. Paediatric exercise science and medicine [Internet]. USA: Oxford University Press; 2008.
doi: 10.1093/med/9780199232482.001.0001
Zazzo B. Les conduites adaptatives en milieu scolaire: intérêt de la comparaison entre les garçons et les filles. Enfance. 1982;35(4):267–81.
doi: 10.3406/enfan.1982.2788
Moore SA, Mckay HA, Macdonald H, Nettlefold L, Baxter-Jones ADG, Cameron N, Brasher MPA. Enhancing a somatic maturity prediction model. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2015;47(8):1755.
pubmed: 25423445
doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000588
Kozieł SM, Malina RM. Modified Maturity Offset prediction equations: validation in independent longitudinal samples of boys and girls. Sports Med. 2018;48(1):221–36.
pubmed: 28608181
doi: 10.1007/s40279-017-0750-y
Janvier B, Testu F. Développement des fluctuations journalières de l’attention chez des élèves de 4 à 11 ans. Enfance. 2005;57(2):155–70.
doi: 10.3917/enf.572.0155
Amieva H, Goff ML, Stoykova R, Lafont S, Ritchie K, Tzourio C, Fabrigoule C, Dartigues JF. Trail making test A Et B (version sans correction des erreurs): normes en population chez des sujets âgés, issues de l’étude Des Trois Cités. Rev Neuropsychol. 2009;1(3):210–20.
Chamari K, Chaouachi A, Hambli M, Kaouech F, Wisløff U, Castagna C. The five-Jump Test for Distance as a field test to assess lower limb Explosive Power in Soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2008;22(3):944–50.
pubmed: 18438217
doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31816a57c6
Borms D, Maenhout A, Cools AM. Upper Quadrant Field Tests and Isokinetic Upper Limb Strength in Overhead Athletes. J Athl Train. 2016 t;51(10):789–96.
Boddington MK, Lambert MI, St Clair Gibson A, Noakes TD. Reliability of a 5-m multiple shuttle test. J Sports Sci. 2001;19(3):223–8.
pubmed: 11256826
doi: 10.1080/026404101750095394
Foster C, Florhaug JA, Franklin J, Gottschall L, Hrovatin LA, Parker S, Doleshal P, Dodge C. A new approach to monitoring exercise training. J Strength Cond Res. 2001;15(1):109–15.
Haddad M, Chaouachi A, Castagna C, Hue O, Wong DP, Tabben M, Behm DG, Chamari K. Validity and psychometric evaluation of the French version of RPE scale in young fit males when monitoring training loads. Sci Sports. 2013;28(2):e29–35.
doi: 10.1016/j.scispo.2012.07.008
Maso F, Cazorla G, Godemet M, Lac G, Robert A. Physiological features of rugby players of French team. Sci Sports. 2002;17(6):297–301.
doi: 10.1016/S0765-1597(02)00164-8
Almansba R, Franchini E, Sterkowicz S. An Uchi-Komi with load, a physiological approach of a new special judo test proposal. Sci Sports. 2007;2.
Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge; 1988. p. 567.
Tomczak M, Tomczak-Łukaszewska E. The need to report effect size estimates revisited. Overv some Recommended Measures Effect size. 2014;21:19–25.
Souissi H, Chaouachi A, Chamari K, Dogui M, Mohamed A, Souissi N. Time-of-Day effects on Short-Term Exercise performances in 10- to 11-Year-old boys. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2010;22:613–23.
pubmed: 21242609
doi: 10.1123/pes.22.4.613
Sana Z, Badrane Z, Vandewalle H, Driss T. Diurnal rhythm of muscular strength depends on temporal specificity of self-resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2015;30(3):717–24.
Guette M, Gondin J, Martin A. Time-of-day effect on the torque and neuromuscular properties of dominant and non-dominant quadriceps femoris. Chronobiol Int. 2005;22(3):541–58.
pubmed: 16076653
doi: 10.1081/CBI-200062407
Racinais S, Chamari K, Hachana Y, Bartagi Z, Blonc S, Hue O. Effect of an acute hot and dry exposure in moderately warm and humid environment on muscle performance at different times of day. Int J Sports Med. 2006;27(1):49–54.
pubmed: 16388442
doi: 10.1055/s-2005-837503
Baccouch R, Zarrouk N, Chtourou H, Rebai H, Sahli S. Time-of-day effects on postural control and attentional capacities in children. Physiol Behav. 2015;142:146–51.
pubmed: 25623540
doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.01.029
Jarraya S, Jarraya M, Souissi N. Diurnal variation and weekly pattern on physical performance in Tunisian children. Sci Sports. 2015;30(1):41–6.
doi: 10.1016/j.scispo.2014.05.004
Chtourou H, Aloui A, Hammouda O, Souissi N, Chaouachi A. Diurnal variation in long- and short-duration exercise performance and mood states in boys. Sport Sci Health. 2014;10(3):183–7.
doi: 10.1007/s11332-014-0190-0
Sedliak M, Finni T, Cheng S, Kraemer WJ, Häkkinen K. Effect of time-of-day-specific strength training on serum hormone concentrations and isometric strength in men. Chronobiol Int. 2007;24(6):1159–77.
pubmed: 18075805
doi: 10.1080/07420520701800686
Souissi Y, Souissi M, Chtourou H. Effects of caffeine ingestion on the diurnal variation of cognitive and repeated high-intensity performances. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2019;177:69–74.
pubmed: 30611752
doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2019.01.001
Chtourou H, Zarrouk N, Chaouachi A, Dogui M, Behm DG, Chamari K et al. Diurnal variation in Wingate-test performance and associated electromyographic parameters. Chronobiol Int. 2011 t;28(8):706–13.
Souissi N, Driss T, Chamari K, Vandewalle H, Davenne D, Gam A, Fillard JR, Jousselin E. Diurnal variation in Wingate test performances: influence of active warm-up. Chronobiol Int. 2010;27(3):640–52.
pubmed: 20524806
doi: 10.3109/07420528.2010.483157
Racinais S. Different effects of heat exposure upon exercise performance in the morning and afternoon. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20 3:80–9.
doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01212.x
Hill DW, Chtourou H. The effect of time of day and chronotype on the relationships between mood state and performance in a Wingate test. Chronobiol Int. 2020;37(11):1599–610.
pubmed: 32924652
doi: 10.1080/07420528.2020.1786394
Knaier R, Qian J, Roth R, Infanger D, Notter T, Wang W, Cajochen C, Scheer FAJL. Diurnal variation in maximum endurance and maximum strength performance: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2022;54(1):169–80.
pubmed: 34431827
pmcid: 10308487
doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002773
Chtourou H, Hammouda O, Souissi N, Chaouachi A. Temporal specificity of training: an update. J Athl Enhanc. 2014;4:90–100.
Gueldich H, Zarrouk N, Chtourou H, Zghal F, Sahli S, Rebai H. Electrostimulation Training effects on diurnal fluctuations of neuromuscular performance. Int J Sports Med. 2017;38(1):41–7.
pubmed: 27793063
Cloes M, Delfosse C, Ledent M, Piéron M. Performances physiques et motrices d’enfants de l’enseignement fondamental engagés ou non dans un programme d’activités physiques quotidiennes. Rev Educ Phys. 1994;34:2–3.
Jarraya S, Jarraya M, Souissi N. Éducation physique et sportive: effet sur les performances cognitives d’écoliers tunisiens. Enfance. 2016;3(3):315–27.
Budde H, Voelcker-Rehage C, Pietraßyk-Kendziorra S, Ribeiro P, Tidow G. Acute coordinative exercise improves attentional performance in adolescents. Neurosci Lett. 2008;441(2):219–23.
pubmed: 18602754
doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.06.024
Valdez P, Ramírez C, García A. Circadian rhythms in cognitive processes: implications for School Learning. Mind Brain Educ. 2014;8(4):161–8.
doi: 10.1111/mbe.12056
Wickersham L. Time-of-day preference for preschool-aged children. Chrestomathy Annu Rev Undergrad Res. 2006;5:259–68.
Kim S, Dueker GL, Hasher L, Goldstein D. Children’s time of day preference: age, gender and ethnic differences. Personal Individ Differ. 2002;33(7):1083–90.
doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00214-8
Touitou Y, Bégué P. Aménagement Du temps Scolaire et santé de l’enfant. Bull Acad Natl Méd. 2010;194(1):107–22.
Edwards B, Waterhouse J, Reilly T. Circadian rhythms and their association with body temperature and Time Awake when performing a simple Task with the Dominant and Non-dominant Hand. Chronobiol Int. 2008;25(1):115–32.
pubmed: 18293153
doi: 10.1080/07420520801921614
Valdez P, Reilly T, Waterhouse J. Rhythms of Mental Performance. Mind Brain Educ. 2008;2(1):7–16.
doi: 10.1111/j.1751-228X.2008.00023.x
Khan NA, Hillman CH. The relation of Childhood Physical activity and aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition: a review. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2014;26(2):138–46.
pubmed: 24722921
doi: 10.1123/pes.2013-0125
Bidzan-Bluma I, Lipowska M. Physical activity and cognitive functioning of children: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(4):800.
pubmed: 29671803
pmcid: 5923842
doi: 10.3390/ijerph15040800
El-Kholy T, Elsayed E. Association of physical activity and health status with intelligence quotient of high school students in Jeddah. J Phys Ther Sci. 2015;27(7):2039–43.
pubmed: 26311922
pmcid: 4540813
doi: 10.1589/jpts.27.2039
Kamijo K, Pontifex MB, O’Leary KC, Scudder MR, Wu CT, Castelli DM, Hillman CH. The effects of an afterschool physical activity program on working memory in preadolescent children: fitness and working memory in children. Dev Sci. 2011;14(5):1046–58.
pubmed: 21884320
pmcid: 3177170
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01054.x
Sneck S, Viholainen H, Syväoja H, Kankaapää A, Hakonen H, Poikkeus AM, Tammelin T. Effects of school-based physical activity on mathematics performance in children: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2019;16(1):109.
pubmed: 31752903
pmcid: 6873534
doi: 10.1186/s12966-019-0866-6
Koliatsos VE, Price DL, Gouras GK, Cayouette MH, Burton LE, Winslow JW. Highly selective effects of nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and neurotrophin-3 on intact and injured basal forebrain magnocellular neurons. J Comp Neurol. 1994;343(2):247–62.
pubmed: 8027442
doi: 10.1002/cne.903430206
Auld DS, Mennicken F, Day JC, Quirion R. Neurotrophins differentially enhance acetylcholine release, acetylcholine content and choline acetyltransferase activity in basal forebrain neurons. J Neurochem. 2001;77(1):253–62.
pubmed: 11279281
doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2001.00234.x
Park H, Poo M. ming. Neurotrophin regulation of neural circuit development and function. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013;14(1):7–23.
Zagrebelsky M, Korte M, Pt. 628–38.
Wrann CD, White JP, Salogiannnis J, Laznik-Bogoslavski D, Wu J, Ma D, Lin JD, Greeberg ME, Spiegelman BM. Exercise induces hippocampal BDNF through a PGC-1α/FNDC5 pathway. Cell Metab. 2013;18(5):649–59.
pubmed: 24120943
pmcid: 3980968
doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2013.09.008
Diaz-Castro J, Garcia-Vega JE, Ochoa JJ, Puche-Juarez M, Toledano JM, Moreno-Fernandez J. Implementation of a physical activity program protocol in Schoolchildren: effects on the endocrine adipose tissue and cognitive functions. Front Nutr. 2021;8:761213.
pubmed: 34746212
pmcid: 8568884
doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.761213
Berchtold NC, Chinn G, Chou M, Kesslak JP, Cotman CW. Exercise primes a molecular memory for brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein induction in the rat hippocampus. Neuroscience. 2005;133(3):853–61.
pubmed: 15896913
doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.03.026
Dinoff A, Herrmann N, Swardfager W, Lanctôt KL. The effect of acute exercise on blood concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in healthy adults: a meta-analysis. Eur J Neurosci. 2017;46(1):1635–46.
pubmed: 28493624
doi: 10.1111/ejn.13603
N’Dri YE. Gender and attention development in children in play situations in Abidjan/Côte d’Ivoire. Int J Soc Sci Hum Res. 2022;5(12):5458–65.
Cheval B, Chalabaev A, Chanal J. Development of physical activity levels of girls and boys in early school years: a psychosocial perspective. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group; 2015. p. 39–57.
Eliot L. The myth of Pink and Blue brains. Educ Leadersh. 2010;68(3):32–6.
Kretschmer L, Salali GD, Andersen LB, Hallal PC, Northstone K, Sardinha LB, Dyble M, Bann D. Gender differences in the distribution of children’s physical activity: evidence from nine countries. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2023;20(1):103.
pubmed: 37667391
pmcid: 10478357
doi: 10.1186/s12966-023-01496-0
De la Cruz-Sánchez E, Pino-Ortega J. An active lifestyle explains sex differences in physical performance in children before puberty. Coll Antropol. 2010;34(2):487–91.
pubmed: 20698121
Knaus MC, Lechner M, Reimers AK. For better or worse? – the effects of physical education on child development. Labour Econ. 2020;67:101904.
doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101904