Authorship Not Taught and Not Caught in Undergraduate Research Experiences at a Research University.
Authorship
Research ethics
Responsible conduct of research
Undergraduate research experience
Journal
Science and engineering ethics
ISSN: 1471-5546
Titre abrégé: Sci Eng Ethics
Pays: England
ID NLM: 9516228
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
10 2020
10 2020
Historique:
received:
22
01
2019
accepted:
26
04
2020
pubmed:
16
5
2020
medline:
19
8
2021
entrez:
16
5
2020
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
This grounded study investigated the negotiation of authorship by faculty members, graduate student mentors, and their undergraduate protégés in undergraduate research experiences at a private research university in the northeastern United States. Semi-structured interviews using complementary scripts were conducted separately with 42 participants over a 3 year period to probe their knowledge and understanding of responsible authorship and publication practices and learn how faculty and students entered into authorship decision-making intended to lead to the publication of peer-reviewed technical papers. Herein the theoretical model for the negotiation of authorship developed through the analysis of these interviews is reported. The model identifies critical causal and intervening conditions responsible for the coping strategies faculty and students employ, which, in our study, appear to often produce unfortunate consequences for all involved. The undergraduate student researchers and their graduate student mentors interviewed in this study exhibited a limited understanding of authorship and the requirements for authorship in their research groups. The power differential between faculty and students, the students' limited epistemic development, the busy-ness of the faculty, and the faculty's failure to prioritize authorship have been identified as key factors inhibiting both undergraduate and graduate students from developing a deeper understanding of responsible authorship and publication practices. Implications for graduate education and undergraduate research are discussed, and strategies for helping all students to develop a deeper understanding of authorship are identified.
Identifiants
pubmed: 32410102
doi: 10.1007/s11948-020-00220-6
pii: 10.1007/s11948-020-00220-6
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
2555-2599Références
Adedokun, O. A., Bessenbacher, A. B., Parker, L. C., Kirkham, L. L., & Burgess, W. D. (2013). Research skills and STEM undergraduate research students' aspirations for research careers: Mediating effects of research self-efficacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 50(8), 940–951. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21102 .
doi: 10.1002/tea.21102
Ainge, D. (2002). Life Skills Checklist for Students who Identify as Indigenous. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 39(2), 107–116.
Albert, T., & Wager, E. (2003). How to handle authorship disputes: A guide for new researchers. The COPE report (pp. 32–34). Internet: Committee on Publication Ethics.
Andes, A., & Mabrouk, P. A. (2018). Authorship in undergraduate research partnerships: A really bad tango between undergraduate protégés and graduate student mentors while waiting for professor Godot. In Credit where credit is due: Respecting authorship and intellectual property, ACS symposium series (Vol. 1291, pp. 133–158). American Chemical Society.
Andrews, T. (2012). What is social constructivism? Grounded Theory Review, 11(1), 1–9.
APA Science Student Council. (2006). A graduate student's guide to determining authorship credit and authorship order. https://www.apa.org/science/leadership/students/authorship-paper.pdf . Accessed April 2020.
Argyris, C. (1999). On organizational learning. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Argyris, C. (2002). Double-loop learning, teaching, and research. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 1(2), 206–219.
Argyris, C., Putnam, R., & McLain Smith, D. (1985). Action science: Concepts, methods, and skills for research and intervention. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bauer, K. W., & Bennett, J. S. (2003). Alumni perceptions used to assess undergraduate research experience. Journal of Higher Education, 74(2), 210–230.
Bhattacharyya, G. (2008). Who am I? What am I doing here? Professional identity and the epistemic development of organic chemists. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 9(2), 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1039/B806222F .
doi: 10.1039/B806222F
Bhattacharyya, G., & Bodner, G. M. (2014). culturing reality: How organic chemistry graduate students develop into practitioners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(6), 694–713. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21157 .
doi: 10.1002/tea.21157
Biagioli, M. (2003). Rights or rewards? Changing frameworks of scientific authorship. In M. Biagioli & P. Galison (Eds.), Scientific authorship: Credit and intellectual property in science (pp. 253–279). New York: Routledge.
Biagioli, M., & Galison, P. (Eds.). (2003). Scientific authorship: Credit and intellectual property in science. New York: Routledge.
Blakelee, A. M. (1997). Activity, context, interaction, and authority: learning to write scientific papers in situ. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 11(2), 125–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1050651997011002001 .
doi: 10.1177/1050651997011002001
Bodner, G., Klobuchar, M., & Geelan, D. (2001). The many forms of constructivism. Journal of Chemical Education, 78(8), 1107. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed078p1107.4 .
doi: 10.1021/ed078p1107.4
Bodner, G. M. (1986). Constructivism: A theory of knowledge. Journal of Chemical Education, 63(10), 873. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed063p873 .
doi: 10.1021/ed063p873
Bone, Z. (2014). Using a learning contract to introduce undergraduates to research projects. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 12(2), 115–123.
Bozeman, B., & Boardman, C. (2014). Assessing research collaboration studies: A framework for analysis. Research collaboration and team science: A state-of-the-art review and agenda (pp. 1–11). Cham: Springer.
Burks, R. L., & Chumchal, M. M. (2009). To co-author or not to co-author: How to write, publish, and negotiate issues of authorship with undergraduate research students. Science Signaling, 2(94), 3. https://doi.org/10.1126/scisignal.294tr3 .
doi: 10.1126/scisignal.294tr3
Carrasco, A., Kent, R., & Keranen, N. (2012). Learning careers and enculturation: Production of scientific papers by PhD students in a Mexican Physiology Laboratory: An exploratory case study. In C. Bazerman, C. Dean, J. Early, K. Lunsford, S. Null, P. Rogers, et al. (Eds.), International advances in writing research: cultures, places, measures (pp. 335–351). Anderson, SC: Parlor Press. (perspectives on writing).
Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Charmaz, K. (2008). Constructionism and the grounded theory method. In J. A. Holstein & J. F. Gubrium (Eds.), Handbook of constructionist research (pp. 397–412). New York: The Guilford Press.
Chemers, M. M., Zurbriggen, E. L., Syed, M., Goza, B. K., & Bearman, S. (2011). The role of efficacy and identity in science career commitment among underrepresented minority students. Journal of Social Issues, 67(3), 469–491. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01710.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01710.x
Clement, T. P. (2014). Authorship matrix: A rational approach to quantify individual contributions and responsibilities in multi-author scientific articles. Science and Engineering Ethics, 20(2), 345–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-013-9454-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s11948-013-9454-3
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator (winter) (pp. 6–46).
Committee on Publication Ethics. (2018). Authorship and contributorship. https://publicationethics.org/authorship . Accessed April 2020.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications Inc.
Córdova, F. A. (2017). Important notice No. 140. Training in responsible conduct of research—A reminder of the NSF requirement. Internet: National Science Foundation.
Council on Undergraduate Research. (2019). Mission. https://www.cur.org/who/organization/mission/ . Accessed April 2020.
Council on Undergraduate Research. (2020). Undergraduate journal catalog. https://www.cur.org/resources/students/undergraduate_journals/ . Accessed April 2020.
de Vries, E. N., Prins, H. A., Crolla, R. M. P. H., den Outer, A. J., van Andel, G., van Helden, S. H., et al. (2010). Effect of a comprehensive surgical safety system on patient outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(20), 1928–1937. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa0911535 .
doi: 10.1056/NEJMsa0911535
Degn, L., Franssen, T., Sørensen, M. P., & de Rijcke, S. (2018). Research groups as communities of practice—A case study of four high-performing research groups. Higher Education, 76(2), 231–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0205-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s10734-017-0205-2
Delamont, S., & Atkinson, P. (2001). Doctoring uncertainty: Mastering craft knowledge. Social Studies of Science, 31(1), 87–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/030631201031001005 .
doi: 10.1177/030631201031001005
Dooley, D. A., Mahon, R. M., & Oshiro, E. A. (2004). An undergraduate research opportunity: Collaboration between undergraduate and graduate students. Journal of Food Science Education, 3(1), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4329.2004.tb00034.x .
doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4329.2004.tb00034.x
Eastwood, S., Derish, P., Leash, E., & Ordway, S. (1996). Ethical issues in biomedical research: Perceptions and practices of postdoctoral research fellows responding to a survey. Science and Engineering Ethics, 2(1), 89–114.
Elm, D. R., & Weber, J. (1994). Measuring moral judgment: The moral judgment interview or the defining issues test? Journal of Business Ethics, 13(5), 341–355. https://doi.org/10.2307/25072538 .
doi: 10.2307/25072538
Flicker, L. S., Rose, S. L., Eves, M. M., Flamm, A. L., Sanghani, R., & Smith, M. L. (2014). Developing and testing a checklist to enhance quality in ethics consultation. The Journal of Clinical Ethics, 25(4), 281–290.
Frandsen, T. F., & Nicolaisen, J. (2010). What is in a name? Credit assignment practices in different disciplines. Journal of Informetrics, 4(4), 608–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2010.06.010 .
doi: 10.1016/j.joi.2010.06.010
Funk, C. L., Barrett, K. A., & Macrina, F. L. (2007). Authorship and publication practices: Evaluation of the effect of responsible conduct of research instruction to postdoctoral trainees. Accountability in Research, 14(4), 269–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620701670187 .
doi: 10.1080/08989620701670187
Galindo-Leal, C. (1996). Explicit authorship. The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 77(4), 219–220. https://doi.org/10.2307/20168086 .
doi: 10.2307/20168086
Gawande, A. (2009). The checklist Manifesto: How to get things right. New York: Metropolitan Books.
Gazni, A., Sugimoto, C. R., & Didegah, F. (2012). Mapping world scientific collaboration: Authors, institutions, and countries. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 63(2), 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.21688 .
doi: 10.1002/asi.21688
Gibson, C., Medeiros, K. E., Giorgini, V., Mecca, J. T., Devenport, L. D., Connelly, S., et al. (2014). A qualitative analysis of power differentials in ethical situations in academia. Ethics & Behavior, 24(4), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2013.858605 .
doi: 10.1080/10508422.2013.858605
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction.
Goodyear, R. K., Crego, C. A., & Johnston, M. W. (1992). Ethical issues in the supervision of student research: A study of critical incidents. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 23(3), 203–210.
Green, J. M., Ballard, J., Hale, S. S., Herzog, E. D., Lewis, R., Schlesinger, S., et al. (2009). Author’s checklist for preparation of publications. https://research.wustl.edu/authors-checklist-preparation-publications/ . Accessed April 2020.
Greer, L. L., Caruso, H. M., & Jehn, K. A. (2011). The bigger they are, the harder they Fal:l linking team power, team conflict, and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 116(1), 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.03.005 .
doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.03.005
Grobman, L. (2009). The student scholar: (Re)Negotiating authorship and authority. College Composition and Communication, 61(1), 178–178.
Hales, B., Terblanche, M., Fowler, R., & Sibbald, W. (2008). Development of medical checklists for improved quality of patient care. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 20(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm062 .
doi: 10.1093/intqhc/mzm062
Hales, B. M., & Pronovost, P. J. (2006). The checklist—A tool for error management and performance improvement. Journal of Critical Care, 21(3), 231–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2006.06.002 .
doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2006.06.002
Harsh, J. A., Maltese, A. V., & Tai, R. H. (2012). A perspective of gender differences in chemistry and physics undergraduate research experiences. Journal of Chemical Education, 89(11), 1364–1370. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed200581m .
doi: 10.1021/ed200581m
Haynes, A. B., Weiser, T. G., Berry, W. R., Lipsitz, S. R., Breizat, A.-H. S., Dellinger, E. P., et al. (2009). A surgical safety checklist to reduce morbidity and mortality in a global population. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(5), 491–499. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa0810119 .
doi: 10.1056/NEJMsa0810119
Hensel, N. H. (Ed.). (2018). Course-based undergraduate research: Educational equity and high-impact practice. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing LLC.
Hosseini, M., Consoli, L., Zwart, H. A. E., & van den Hoven, M. A. (2019). Suggestions to improve the comprehensibility of current definitions of scientific authorship for international authors. Science and Engineering Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-019-00106-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s11948-019-00106-2
House, M. C., & Seeman, J. I. (2010). Credit and authorship practices: Educational and environmental influences. Accountability in Research, 17(5), 223–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989621.2010.512857 .
doi: 10.1080/08989621.2010.512857
Hunter, A.-B., Laursen, S. L., & Seymour, E. (2007). Becoming a scientist: The role of undergraduate research in students' cognitive, personal, and professional development. Science Education, 91, 36–74.
The carnegie classification of institutions of higher education (2018 edition). https://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/ . Accessed April 2020.
International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. (2018a). International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. https://www.icmje.org/ . Accessed April 2020.
International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. (2018b). Roles and responsibilities: Defining the role of authors and contributors. https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html . Accessed April 2020.
Ishiyama, J. (2002). Does early participation in undergraduate research benefit social science and humanities students? College Student Journal, 36(3), 380–386.
Jennings, M. M., & El-adaway, I. H. (2012). Ethical issues in multiple-authored and mentor-supervised publications. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 138(1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000087 .
doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000087
Kalichman, M., Sweet, M., & Plemmons, D. (2014). Standards of scientific conduct: Are there any? Science and Engineering Ethics, 20(4), 885–896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-013-9500-1 .
doi: 10.1007/s11948-013-9500-1
Kalichman, M., Sweet, M., & Plemmons, D. (2015). Standards of scientific conduct: Disciplinary differences. Science and Engineering Ethics, 21(5), 1085–1093. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-014-9594-0 .
doi: 10.1007/s11948-014-9594-0
Kenyon, C., & Belle Brown, J. (2007). Mission statement day: The impact on medical students of an early exercise in professionalism. Medical Teacher, 29(6), 606–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590701602079
doi: 10.1080/01421590701602079
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. New York: Cambridge.
Knowles, M. S. (1986). Using learning contracts. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.
Kolikant, Y. B.-D., Gatchell, D. W., Hirsch, P. L., & Linsenmeier, R. A. (2006). A cognitive-apprenticeship-inspired instructional approach for teaching scientific reading and writing. Journal of College Science Teaching, 36(3), 20–25.
Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121 .
doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121
Latour, B., & Woolgar, S. (1986). Laboratory life. The construction of scientific facts (2nd ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Laursen, S. L., Seymour, E., Melton, G., Hunter, A.-B., & Thir, Hy. (2010). Undergraduate research in the sciences: Engaging students in real science. San Francisco, CA: Wiley.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lederman, J. S., Lederman, N. G., Bartos, S. A., Bartels, S. L., Meyer, A. A., & Schwartz, R. S. (2014). Meaningful assessment of learners' understandings about scientific inquiry—The views about scientific inquiry (VASI) questionnaire. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21125 .
doi: 10.1002/tea.21125
Linn, M. C., Palmer, E., Baranger, A., Gerard, E., & Stone, E. (2015). Undergraduate research experiences: Impacts and opportunities. Science, 347(6222), 1261757. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261757 .
doi: 10.1126/science.1261757
Lopatto, D. (2004). Survey of undergraduate research experiences (SURE): First findings. Cell Biology Education, 3, 270–277. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.04-07-0045 .
doi: 10.1187/cbe.04-07-0045
Lopatto, D. (2007). Undergraduate research experiences support science career decisions and active learning. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 6(4), 297–306. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.07-06-0039 .
doi: 10.1187/cbe.07-06-0039
Mabmud, S. M. (2010). Cohen's Kappa. In N. J. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopedia of research design (pp. 188–189). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Mabrouk, P. A. (2003). Research learning contracts: A useful tool for facilitating successful UR experiences. CUR Quarterly, 24, 26–30.
Mabrouk, P. A. (2013). An investigation of the evolution of high school and undergraduate student researchers' understanding of key science ethics concepts. Journal of College Science Teaching, 43(2), 91–99.
Mabrouk, P. A. (2016). What knowledge of responsible conduct of research do undergraduates bring to their undergraduate research experiences? Journal of Chemical Education, 93(1), 46–55, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00264 .
doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b00264
Mabrouk, P. A., & Currano, J. N. (Eds.). (2018). Credit Where Credit Is Due: Respecting Authorship and Intellectual Property (Vol. 1291, ACS Symposium Series): American Chemical Society
Mabrouk, P. A., & Peters, K. (2000). Student perspectives on undergraduate research experiences in chemistry and biology. CUR Quarterly (September), pp. 25–33.
Marusic, A., Bosnjak, L., & Jeroncic, A. (2011). A systematic review of research on the meaning, ethics and practices of authorship across scholarly disciplines. PLoS ONE, 6(9), e23477. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023477 .
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023477
Maurer, T. W. (2017). Guidelines for authorship credit, order, and co-inquirer learning in collaborative faculty-student SoTL projects. Teaching & Learning Inquiry, 5(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.20343/5.1.9 .
doi: 10.20343/5.1.9
McArthur, P., Putnam, R., & McLain Smith, D. (2018). Action design. https://www.actiondesign.com/ . Accessed April 2020.
Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K. (2006). The development of constructivist grounded theory. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500103 .
doi: 10.1177/160940690600500103
Nadelson, L. S., McGuire, S. P., Davis, K. A., Farid, A., Hardy, K. K., Hsu, Y.-C., et al. (2017). Am I a STEM professional? Documenting STEM student professional identity development. Studies in Higher Education, 42(4), 701–720. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1070819 .
doi: 10.1080/03075079.2015.1070819
Nagda, B. A., Gregerman, S. R., Jonides, J., von Hippel, W., & Lerner, J. S. (1998). Undergraduate student-faculty research partnerships affect student retention. Review of Higher Education, 22(1), 55–72.
Narvaez, D., & Bock, T. (2002). Moral schemas and tacit judgement or how the defining issues test is supported by cognitive science. Journal of Moral Education, 31(3), 297–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724022000008124 .
doi: 10.1080/0305724022000008124
National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (2017). Fostering integrity in research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Academy of Engineering. (2009). Ethics education and scientific and engineering research: What's Been learned? What Should Be Done? In R. Hollander & C. R. Arenberg (Eds.), Washington (p. 58). DC: The National Academies Press.
National Academy of Sciences. (2018). The Online ethics center for engineering and science. https://www.onlineethics.org/ . Accessed April 2020.
National Science Foundation. (2019). Proposal and award policies & procedures guide. Chapter IX-Grantee Standards internet.
Oberlander, S. E., & Spencer, R. J. (2006). Graduate students and the culture of authorship. Ethics & Behavior, 16(3), 217–232. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327019eb1603_3 .
doi: 10.1207/s15327019eb1603_3
Office of Policy for Extramural Research Administration. Division of Grants Policy. (2014). Revised Policy: Descriptions on the Use of Individual Development Plans (IDPs) for Graduate Students and Postdoctoral Researchers Required in Annual Progress Reports beginning October 1, 2014. internet: National Institutes of Health.
Office of Research Integrity, U.S. Department of Health and Human Service. (2015). The Lab. Avoiding Research Misconduct. https://ori.hhs.gov/TheLab/TheLab.shtml . Accessed April 2020.
Office of the Inspector General. (2017). OIG review of institutions’ implementation of NSF’s responsible conduct of research requirements (pp. 14). Internet: National Science Foundation.
Park, J. J., Choe, N. H., Schallert, D. L., & Forbis, A. K. (2017). The chemical engineering research laboratory as context for graduate students' training: The role of lab structure and cultural climate in collaborative work. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 13, 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2017.04.001 .
doi: 10.1016/j.lcsi.2017.04.001
Reig, A. J., Goddard, K. A., Kohn, R. E., Jaworski, L., & Lopatto, D. (2018). The FUTURE program: Engaging underserved populations through early research experiences. In Best practices for supporting and expanding undergraduate research in chemistry (Vol. 1275, pp. 3–21, ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 1275). American Chemical Society.
Rennie, D., Yank, V., & Emanuel, L. (1997). When authorship fails: A proposal to make contributors accountable. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(7), 579–585. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550070071041 .
doi: 10.1001/jama.1997.03550070071041
Responsible Conduct Working Group of the Society for Neuroscience. (2010). Guidelines for responsible conduct regarding scientific communication. https://www.sfn.org/membership/professional-conduct/guidelines-for-responsible-conduct-regarding-scientific-communication . Accessed April 2020.
Rest, J., Cooper, D., Coder, R., Masanz, J., & Anderson, D. (1974). Judging the important issues in moral dilemmas: An objective measure of development. Developmental Psychology, 10(4), 491–501.
Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., Thoma, S. J., & Bebeau, M. J. (1999). DIT2: Devising and testing a revised instrument of moral judgment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(4), 644–659.
Rye, K. J.-B. (2008). Perceived benefits of the use of learning contracts to guide clinical education in respiratory care students. Respiratory Care, 53(11), 1475–1481.
Samarapungavan, A., Westby, E. L., & Bodner, G. M. (2006). Contextual epistemic development in science: A comparison of chemistry students and research chemists. Science Education, 90(3), 468–495. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.20111 .
doi: 10.1002/sce.20111
Sandler, J. C., & Russell, B. L. (2005). Faculty-student collaborations: Ethics and satisfaction in authorship credit. Ethics & Behavior, 15(1), 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327019eb1501_5 .
doi: 10.1207/s15327019eb1501_5
Seymour, E., Hunter, A.-B., Laursen, S. L., & DeAntoni, T. (2004). Establishing the benefits of research experiences for undergraduates in the sciences: First findings from a three-year study. Science Education, 88(4), 493–534. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.10131 .
doi: 10.1002/sce.10131
Shachter, A. M. (2003). Integrating ethics in science into a summer undergraduate research program. Journal of Chemical Education, 80, 507–512.
Sharp, L., Kleiner, B., & Frechtling, J. (2000). A Description and analysis of best practice findings of programs promoting participation of underrepresented undergraduate students in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology fields (p. 48). Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
Smith, E., Williams-Jones, B., Master, Z., Larivière, V., Sugimoto, C. R., Paul-Hus, A., et al. (2019). Misconduct and misbehavior related to authorship disagreements in collaborative science. Science and Engineering Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-019-00112-4 .
doi: 10.1007/s11948-019-00112-4
Spector, J. M., Agrawal, P., Kodkany, B., Lipsitz, S., Lashoher, A., Dziekan, G., et al. (2012). Improving quality of care for maternal and newborn health: Prospective pilot study of the who safe childbirth checklist program. PLoS ONE, 7(5), e35151. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035151 .
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035151
Stevens, G. A., Alkema, L., Black, R. E., Boerma, J. T., Collins, G. S., Ezzati, M., et al. (2016). Guidelines for accurate and transparent health estimates reporting: The GATHER statement. Lancet, 388(10062), 19–E23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16),30388-9 .
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16),30388-9
Stewart, K. K., & Lagowski, J. J. (2003). Cognitive apprenticeship theory and graduate chemistry education. Journal of Chemical Education, 80, 1362–1366.
Swazey, J. P., Anderson, M. S., Lewis, K. S., & Louis, K. S. (1993). Ethical problems in academic research. American Scientist, 81(6), 542–553.
Tarnow, E. (1999). The authorship list in science: Junior physicists’ perceptions of who appears and why. Science and Engineering Ethics, 5(1), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-999-0061-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s11948-999-0061-2
Teixeira da Silva, J. A., & Dobránszki, J. (2016). Multiple Authorship in scientific manuscripts: Ethical challenges, ghost and guest/gift authorship, and the cultural/disciplinary perspective. Science and Engineering Ethics, 22(5), 1457–1472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-015-9716-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s11948-015-9716-3
Tergan, S.-O. (1998). Checklists for the evaluation of educational software: Critical review and prospects. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 35(1), 9–20.
Thiry, H., Laursen, S. L., & Hunter, A.-B. (2011). What experiences help students become scientists? A comparative study of research and other sources of personal and professional gains for STEM undergraduates. Journal of Higher Education, 82(4), 357–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2011.11777209 .
doi: 10.1080/00221546.2011.11777209
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1989). NIH Guide for Grants and Contracts Notices. https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/historical/1989_12_22_Vol_18_No_45.pdf . Accessed April 2020.
Update on the Requirement for Instruction in the Responsible Conduct of Research (2019). https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-10-019.html . Accessed April 2020.
Welfare, L. E., & Sackett, C. R. (2011). The Authorship Determination Process in Student-Faculty Collaborative Research. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89(4), 479–487. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2011.tb02845.x .
doi: 10.1002/j.1556-6676.2011.tb02845.x
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice (Learning in doing: Social, cognitive, and computational Perspectives). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wenzel, T. (2020). Definition of Undergraduate Research. https://www.bates.edu/Prebuilt/chem-definition.pdf . Accessed April 2020.
Wenzel, T. J. (2000). Undergraduate research: A capstone learning experience. Analytical Chemistry, 72(15), 547A–549A.
Wenzel, T. J. (2004). Enhancing research in the chemical sciences at predominantly undergraduate institutions. Lewiston: Bates College.
Wilcox, L. J. (1998). Authorship: The coin of the realm, The source of complaints. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(3), 216–217. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.3.216 .
doi: 10.1001/jama.280.3.216
Wilson, A. (2012). Using the national survey of student engagement to measure undergraduate research participation. CUR Quarterly, 32(3), 9–14.
Witze, A. (2016). Research Gets Increasingly International. https://www.nature.com/news/research-gets-increasingly-international-1.19198 . Accessed Apr 2020.
Wood, W. B. (2003). Inquiry-based undergraduate teaching in the life sciences at large research universities: A perspective on the boyer commission report. Cell Biology Education, 2(2), 112–116. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.03-02-0004 .
doi: 10.1187/cbe.03-02-0004