'Whispers and shadows': A critical review of the professional identity literature with respect to minority physicians.
Journal
Medical education
ISSN: 1365-2923
Titre abrégé: Med Educ
Pays: England
ID NLM: 7605655
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
02 2021
02 2021
Historique:
received:
13
03
2020
revised:
28
06
2020
accepted:
16
07
2020
pubmed:
16
1
2021
medline:
24
6
2021
entrez:
15
1
2021
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Professional identity formation (PIF) is a growing area of research in medical education. However, it is unclear whether the present research base is suitable for understanding PIF in physicians considered to be under-represented in medicine (URM). This meta-ethnography examined the qualitative PIF literature from 2012 to 2019 to assess its capacity to shine light on the experiences of minoritised physicians. Data were gathered using a search of six well-known medical education journals for the term 'professional identit*' in titles, keywords, abstracts and subheadings, delineated with the date range of 2012-2019. All non-relevant abstracts were removed and papers were then further reduced to those that focused only on learners' experiences. This left 67 articles in the final dataset, which were analysed using a collaborative approach among a team of researchers. The team members used their professional expertise as qualitative researchers and personal experiences as minoritised individuals to synthesise and interpret the PIF literature. Four conceptual categories were identified as impacting PIF: Individual versus Sociocultural Influences; the Formal versus the Hidden Curriculum; Institutional versus Societal Values; and Negotiation of Identity versus Dissonance in Identity. However, a major gap was identified; only one study explored experiences of PIF in URM physicians and there was an almost complete absence of critical stances used to study PIF. Combined, these findings suggest that PIF research is building on existing theories without questioning their validity with reference to minoritised physicians. From a post-colonial perspective, the fact that race and ethnicity have been largely absent, invisible or considered irrelevant within PIF research is problematic. A new line of inquiry is needed, one that uses alternative frameworks, such as critical theory, to account for the ways in which power and domination influence PIF for URM physicians in order to foreground how larger sociohistorical issues influence and shape the identities of minoritised physicians.
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
148-158Commentaires et corrections
Type : CommentIn
Informations de copyright
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd and The Association for the Study of Medical Education.
Références
Cruess S, Cruess R. Professionalism and medicine's social contract with society. AMA J Ethics. 2004;6(4):185-188.
Harris J. It is time to cancel medicine's social contract metaphor. Acad Med. 2017;92(9):1236-1240.
Frye V, Camacho-Rivera M, Salas-Ramirez K, et al. Professionalism: the wrong tool to solve the right problem. Acad Med. 2020;95(6):860-863.
Association of American Medical Colleges. Underrepresented in medicine definition. 2004. https://www.aamc.org/what-we-do/mission-areas/diversity-inclusion/underrepresented-in-medicine. Accessed October 12, 2019.
Association of American Medical Colleges. Roadmap to Diversity: Key Legal and Educational Policy Foundations for Medical Schools. Washington, DC: AAMC; 2014.
Poole K, Jordan B, Bostwick M. Mission drift: are medical school admissions committees missing the mark on diversity? Acad Med. 2020;95(3):357-360.
Wyatt TR, Rockish-Winston N, White D, Taylor T. ‘Changing the narrative’: a study on professional identity formation among Black/African American physicians in the US. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2020.
Washington H. Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present. New York, NY: Anchor Books; 2006.
Rodriguez J, Campbell K, Mouratidis R. Where are the rest of us? Improving representation of minority faculty in academic medicine. South Med J. 2014;107(12):739-744.
Fanon F. Black Skin, White Masks. London: MacGibbon & Kee; 1952 (revised edn 1968).
Said E. Orientalism reconsidered. Race Class. 1985;27(2):1-15.
Ashcroft B, Griffiths G, Tiffin H, eds. The Post-Colonial Studies Reader, 2nd edn. New York, NY: Routledge; 1995.
Dei G, Asgharzadeh A. The power of social theory: the anti-colonial discursive framework. J Educ Thought. 2001;35(3):297-323.
Halagao P. Liberating Filipino Americans through decolonizing curriculum. Race Ethnicity Educ. 2010;13(4):495-512.
Kaomea J. A curriculum of Aloha? Colonialism and tourism in Hawai'i's elementary textbooks. Curric Inq. 2015;30(3):319-344.
Gramsci A. Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. New York, NY: International Publishers; 1971.
Tuhiwai-Smith L. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed Books; 1999.
Fanon F. The Wretched of the Earth. New York, NY: Grove Press; 2007.
Wyatt T, Rockich-Winston N, Taylor T, White D. What does context have to do with anything? A study of professional identity formation in physician-trainees considered underrepresented in medicine. Acad Med. 2020. Epub ahead of print
Cruess R, Cruess S, Boudreau D, Snell L, Steinert Y. A schematic representation of the professional identity formation and socialization of medical students and residents: a guide for medical educators. Acad Med. 2015;90(6):718-725.
Kay D, Berry A, Coles N. What experiences in medical school trigger professional identity formation? Teach Learn Med. 2019;31(1):17-25.
Wilson Y, White A, Jefferson A, Danis M. Intersectionality in clinical medicine: the need for a conceptual framework. Am J Bioethics. 2019;19(2):8-19.
Eckstrand K, Eliason J, St Cloud T, Potter J. The priority of intersectionality in academic medicine. Acad Med. 2016;91(7):904-907.
Volpe R, Hopkins M, Haidet P, Wolpaw D, Adams N. Is research on professional identity formation biased? Early insights from a scoping review and metasynthesis. Med Educ. 2019;53(2):119-132.
Becker H, Geer B, Hughes E, Strauss A. Boys in White: Student Culture in Medical School. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 1961.
Merton R, Reader G, Kendall P. The Student Physician: Introductory Studies in the Sociology of Medical Education. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press; 1957.
National Public Radio, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Discrimination in America: experiences and views of African Americans. 2017. https://www.npr.org/assets/img/2017/10/23/discriminationpoll-african-americans.pdf. Accessed October 18, 2018.
Bourdieu P. The forms of capital. In: Richardson J, ed. Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York, NY: Greenwood; 1986:241-258.
Paton M, Kuper A, Paradis E, Feilchenfeld Z, Whitehead C. Tackling the void: the importance of addressing absences in the field of health professions education research. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2020. Epub ahead of print.
Noblit G, Hare R. Meta-Ethnography: Synthesizing Qualitative Studies. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications; 1988.
Grant M, Booth A. A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Info Libr J. 2009;26(2):91-108.
Mann Z, Peters M, Stern C, Tufanaru C, McArthur A, Aromataris E. Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2018;18:143.
Toye F, Seers K, Allcock N, Briggs M, Carr E, Barker K. Meta-ethnography 25 years on: challenges and insights for synthesizing a large number of qualitative studies. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2014;14:80.
Atkins S, Lewin S, Smith H, Engel M, Retheim A, Volmink J. Conducting a meta-ethnography of qualitative literature: lessons learnt. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2008;8:21.
France E, Cunningham M, Ring N, et al. Improving reporting of meta-ethnography: the eMERGe reporting guidance. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2019;19:25.
Britten N, Campbell R, Pope C, Donovan J, Morgan M, Pill R. Using meta ethnography to synthesize qualitative research: a worked example. J Health Serv Res Policy. 2002;7(4):209-215.
Doyle L. Synthesis through meta-ethnography: paradoxes, enhancements, and possibilities. Qual Res. 2003;3(3):321-344.
Olsen L. The conscripted curriculum and the reproduction of racial inequalities in contemporary US medical education. J Health Soc Behav. 2019;60(1):55-68.
Stanfield J II. The ethnocentric basis of social science knowledge production. Rev Res Educ. 1985;12(1):387-415.
Scheurich J, Young M. Coloring epistemologies: are our research epistemologies racially biased? Educ Res. 1997;26(4):4-16.
Monrouxe L. Negotiating professional identities: dominant and contesting narratives in medical students' longitudinal audio diaries. Current Narratives. 2009;1(1):41-59.
Jarvis-Sellinger S, Pratt D, Regehr G. Competency is not enough: integrating identity formation into the medical education discourse. Acad Med. 2012;87(9):1185-1190.
Jarvis-Sellinger S, MacNeil K, Costello G, Lee K, Holmes C. Understanding professional identity formation in early clerkship: a novel framework. Acad Med. 2019;94(10):1574-1580.
Campbell R, Pound P, Morgan M, et al. Evaluating meta-ethnography: systematic analysis and synthesis of qualitative research. Health Technol Access. 2011;15(43):1-164.
Aitken G, Jones D, Fawns T, Sutherland D, Henderson S. Using Bourdieu to explore graduate attributes in two online Master’s programmes. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2019;24(3):559-576.
de Lasson L, Just E, Stegeager N, Malling B. Professional identity formation in the transition from medical school to working life: a qualitative study of group-coaching courses for junior doctors. BMC Med Educ. 2016;16:165.
Kluijtmans M, de Haan E, Akkerman S, van Tartwijk J. Professional identity in clinician-scientists: brokers between care and science. Med Educ. 2017;51(6):645-655.
Law M, Lam M, Wu D, Veinot P, Mylopoulos M. Changes in personal relationships during residency and their effects on resident wellness: a qualitative study. Acad Med. 2017;92(11):1601-1606.
McLean M. From being a nurse to becoming a ‘different’ doctor. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2017;22(3):667-689.
Konkin J, Suddards C. Creating stories to live by: caring and professional identity formation in a longitudinal integrated clerkship. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2012;17(4):585-596.
Daly M, Roberts C, Kumar K, Perkins D. Longitudinal integrated rural placements: a social learning systems perspective. Med Educ. 2013;47(4):352-361.
Roberts C, Daly M, Kumar K, Perkins D, Richards D, Garne D. A longitudinal integrated placement and medical students' intentions to practise rurally. Med Educ. 2012;46(2):179-191.
Wong A, Trollope-Kumar K. Reflections: an inquiry into medical students' professional identity formation. Med Educ. 2014;48(5):489-501.
Wald H, White J, Reis S, Esquibel A, Anthony D. Grappling with complexity: medical students’ reflective writings about challenging patient encounters as a window into professional identity formation. Med Teach. 2019;41(2):152-160.
Binyamin G. Growing from dilemmas: developing a professional identity through collaborative reflections on relational dilemmas. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2018;23(1):43-60.
Schrewe B, Bates J, Pratt D, Ruitenberg C, McKellin W. The big D(eal): professional identity through discursive constructions of ‘patient’. Med Educ. 2017;51(6):656-668.
Warmington S, McColl G. Medical student stories of participation in patient care-related activities: the construction of relational identity. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2017;22(1):147-163.
Helmich E, Yeh H, Yeh C, de Vries J, Fu-Chang T, Dornan T. Emotional learning and identity development in medicine: a cross-cultural qualitative study comparing Taiwanese and Dutch medical undergraduates. Acad Med. 2017;92(6):853-859.
Cope A, Bezemer J, Mavroveli S, Kneebone R. What attitudes and values are incorporated into self as part of professional identity construction when becoming a surgeon? Acad Med. 2017;92(4):544-549.
Gomes A, Butera G, Chretien K, Kind T. The development and impact of a social media and professionalism course for medical students. Teach Learn Med. 2017;29(3):296-303.
Chang H, Lee Y, Lee Y, Kwon H. Causes of resident lapses in professional conduct during the training: a qualitative study on the perspectives of residents. Med Teach. 2016;39(3):278-284.
Hay A, Smithson S, Mann K, Dornan T. Medical students’ reactions to an experience-based learning model of clinical education. Perspect Med Educ. 2013;2(2):58-71.
Klingler B, Linde B, Katz N. Becoming a doctor: a qualitative evaluation of challenges and opportunities in medical student wellness during the third year. Acad Med. 2013;88(4):535-540.
Chen L, McDonald J, Pratt D, Wisener K, Jarvis-Sellinger S. Residents' views of the role of classroom-based learning in graduate medical education through the lens of academic half days. Acad Med. 2015;90(4):532-538.
Burford B, Morrow G, Rothwell C, Carter M, Illing J. Professionalism education should reflect reality: findings from three health professions. Med Educ. 2014;48(4):361-374.
Lovell B. 'We are a tight community': social groups and social identity in medical undergraduates. Med Educ. 2015;49(10):1016-1027.
Miller E, Balmer D, Hermann N, Graham G, Charon R. Sounding narrative medicine: studying students’ professional identity development at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. Acad Med. 2014;89(2):335-342.
Smith S, Tallentire V, Cameron H, Wood S. The effects of contributing to patient care on medical students' workplace learning. Med Educ. 2013;47(12):1184-1196.
Grogan M, Cleaver SJ. Taking a critical stance in research. In: Briggs A, Coleman M, Morrison M, eds. Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Management, 3rd edn. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications; 2012:29-45.
Mossop L, Dennick R, Hammond R, Robbe I. Analysing the hidden curriculum: use of a cultural web. Med Educ. 2013;47(2):134-143.
Vivekananda-Schmidt P, Crossley J, Murdoch-Eaton D. A model of professional self-identity formation in student doctors and dentists: a mixed method study. BMC Med Educ. 2015;15:83.
Bennett D, Solomon Y, Bergin C, Horgan M, Dornan T. Possibility and agency in figured worlds: becoming a 'good doctor'. Med Educ. 2017;51(3):248-257.
Wilson H, Warmington S, Johansen M. Experience-based learning: junior medical students’ reflections on end-of-life care. Med Educ. 2019;53(7):687-697.
Scott O, Novak C, Forbes K. Medical student perceptions of on-call modalities: a focus group study. Teach Learn Med. 2019;31(1):34-43.
Rees C, Kent F, Crampton P. Student and clinician identities: how are identities constructed in interprofessional narratives. Med Educ. 2019;53(8):808-823.
Horberg A, Lindstrom V, Scheja M, Conte H, Kalen S. Challenging encounters as experienced by registered nurses new to the emergency medical service: explored by using the theory of communities of practice. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2019;24(2):233-249.
Adema M, Dolmans D, Raat J, Scheele F, Jaarsma A, Helmich E. Social interactions of clerks: the role of engagement, imagination, and alignment as sources for professional identity formation. Acad Med. 2019;94(10):1567-1573.
Kilbertus F, Ajjawi R, Archibald D. ‘You’re not trying to save somebody from death’: learning as ‘becoming’ in palliative care. Acad Med. 2018;93(6):929-936.
Holmes C, Hubinette M, Maclure M, et al. Reflecting on what? The difficulty of noticing formative experiences in the moment. Perspect Med Educ. 2018;7(6):379-385.
de Grasset J, Audetat M, Bajwa N, et al. Medical students’ professional identity development from being actors in an objective structured teaching exercise. Med Teach. 2018;40(11):1151-1158.
Cunningham H, Taylor D, Desai U, et al. Looking back to look forward: first-year medical students’ meta-reflections on their narrative portfolio writings. Acad Med. 2018;93(6):888-894.
Bates J, Ellaway R. Mapping the dark matter of context: a conceptual scoping review. Med Educ. 2016;20(8):807-816.
Consorti F, Ginsburg S, Ho M, Potasso L, Toscano E. A phenomenological study of Italian students’ responses to professional dilemmas: a cross-cultural comparison. Teach Learn Med. 2019;31(1):44-52.
Chow C, Byington C, Olsen L, Ramirez K, Zeng S, Lopez A. A conceptual model for understanding academic physicians' performances of identity: findings from the University of Utah. Acad Med. 2018;93(10):1539-1549.
Sawatsky A, Beckman T, Hafferty F. Cultural competency, professional identity formation, and transformative learning. Med Educ. 2017;51(5):458-462.
Frost H, Regehr G. ‘I AM a doctor’: negotiating the discourses of standardization and diversity in professional identity construction. Acad Med. 2013;88(10):1570-1577.
Al-Rumayyan A, Van Mook W, Magzoub M, et al. Medical professionalism frameworks across non-Western cultures: a narrative overview. Med Teach. 2017;39(Suppl 1):S8-S14.
Wilson S. What is an indigenous research methodology? Can J Native Educ. 2001;25(2):175-179.
Collins PH. Learning from the outsider within: the sociological significance of Black feminist thought. Soc Probl. 1986;33(6):S14-S32.
Brayboy B. Toward a tribal critical race theory in education. Urban Rev. 2005;37(5):425-446.
Kuper A, D'Eon M. Rethinking the basis of medical knowledge. Med Educ. 2011;45(1):36-43.
Al-Azri N. Do we need a new medical paradigm? Oman Med J. 2012;27(3):256-257.
Wood A. Learning, assessment, and professional identity development in public health training. Med Teach. 2016;38(6):594-598.
Luu S, Patel P, St-Martin L, et al. Waking up the next morning: surgeons' emotional reactions to adverse events. Med Educ. 2012;46(12):1179-1188.
Helmich E, Bolhuis S, Dornan T, Laan R, Koopmans R. Entering medical practice for the very first time: emotional talk, meaning and identity development. Med Educ. 2012;46(11):1074-1087.
Weurlander M, Lonn A, Seeberger A, Hult H, Thornberg R, Wernerson A. Emotional challenges of medical students generate feelings of uncertainty. Med Educ. 2019;53(10):1037-1048.
Wang X, Swinton M, You J. Medical students’ experiences with goals of care discussions and their impact on professional identity formation. Med Educ. 2019;53(12):1230-1242.
Bhat C, Burm S, Mohan T, Chahine S, Goldszmidt M. What trainees grapple with: a study of threshold concepts of the medicine ward. Med Educ. 2018;52(6):620-631.
Sukhera J, Wodzinski M, Teunissen P, Lingard L, Watling C. Striving while accepting: exploring the relationship between identity and implicit bias recognition and management. Acad Med. 2018;93(11 Suppl):S82-S88.
Michelson C, Dzara K, Ramani S, Vinci R, Scheumacher D. Keystone: Exploring pediatric residents’ experiences in a longitudinal integrated block. Teach Learn Med. 2019;31(1):99-108.
Stubbing E, Helmich E, Cleland J. Authoring the identity of learner before doctor in the figured world of medical school. Perspect Biol Med. 2018;7(1):40-46.
Schrewe B. Thrown into the world of independent practice: from unexpected uncertainty to new identities. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2018;23(5):1051-1064.
Cuncic C, Regehr G, Frost H, Bates J. It’s all about relationships. Perspect Med Educ. 2018;7(2):100-109.
Jarvis-Selinger S, MacNeil K, Costello G, Lee K, Holmes C. Understanding professional identity formation in early clerkship: a novel framework. Acad Med. 2019;94(10):1574-1580.
Greenzang K, Revette A, Kesselheim J. Patients of our own: defining ‘ownership’ of clinical care in graduate medical education. Teach Learn Med. 2019;31(4):393-401.
Gormley G, Brennan C, Dempster M. ‘What … you can’t tell left from right?’ Medical students’ experiences in making laterality decisions. Med Educ. 2019;53(5):458-466.
Hafferty F. Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicine's hidden curriculum. Acad Med. 1998;73(4):403-407.
Gonzalo J, Davis C, Thompson B, Haidet P. Unpacking medical students’ mixed engagement in health systems science education. Teach Learn Med. 2019;32(3):250-258.
Sawatsky A, Nordhues H, Merry S, Bashir U, Hafferty F. Transformative learning and professional identity formation during international health electives: a qualitative study using grounded theory. Acad Med. 2018;93(9):1381-1390.
Hazen A, de Groot E, de Bont A, et al. Learning through boundary crossing: professional identity formation of pharmacists transitioning to general practice in the Netherlands. Acad Med. 2018;93(10):1531-1538.
Chandratilake M, McAleer S, Gibson J. Cultural similarities and differences in medical professionalism: a multi-region study. Med Educ. 2012;46(3):257-266.
Cruess S, Cruess R, Steinert Y. Teaching professionalism across cultural and national borders: lessons learned from an AMEE workshop. Med Teach. 2010;32(5):371-374.
Joynes V. Defining and understanding the relationship between professional identity and interprofessional responsibility: implications for educating health and social care students. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2018;23(1):133-149.
Meyer E, Zapatka S, Brienza B. The development of professional identity and the formation of teams in the Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare System's Center of Excellence in Primary Care Education Program (CoEPCE). Acad Med. 2015;90(6):802-809.
Hawick L, Cleland J, Kitto S. ‘I feel like I sleep here’: how space and place influence medical student experiences. Med Educ. 2018;52(10):1016-1027.
Dhamoon R. Considerations on mainstreaming intersectionality. Political Res Q. 2011;64(1):230-243.
Slay H, Smith D. Professional identity construction: using narrative to understand the negotiation of professional and stigmatized cultural identities. Hum Relations. 2011;64(1):85-107.
Beech N. Liminality and the practices of identity reconstruction. Hum Relations. 2010;64(2):285-302.
Joseph K, Bader K, Wilson S, Walker M, Stephens M, Varpio L. Unmasking identity dissonance: exploring medical students' professional identity formation through mask making. Perspect Med Educ. 2017;6(2):99-107.
Winkel A, Robinson A, Jones A. Physician resilience: a grounded theory study of obstetrics and gynaecology residents. Med Educ. 2019;53(2):184-194.
Stergiopoulos E, Fernando O, Martimianakis M. ‘Being on both sides’: Canadian medical students’ experiences with disability, the hidden curriculum, and professional identity construction. Acad Med. 2018;93(10):1550-1559.
Sukhera J, Milne A, Teunissen P, Lingard L, Watling C. The actual versus idealized self: exploring responses to feedback about implicit bias in health professionals. Acad Med. 2018;93(4):623-629.
Chan M, Pratt D, Poole G, Sidhu R. Professional paradox: identity formation in qualified doctors pursuing further training. Med Educ. 2018;52(3):302-313.
Steinauer J, O’Sullivan P, Preskill F, ten Cate O, Teherani A. What makes ‘difficult patients’ difficult for medical students. Acad Med. 2018;93(9):1359-1366.
Matthews R, Smith-Han K, Nicholson H. From physiotherapy to the army: negotiating previously developed professional identities in mature medical students. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2019;25(3):607-627.
Tahim A. Who are we? A qualitative evaluation of trainees' perspectives on professional identity in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Perspect Med Educ. 2015;4(1):33-38.
Brofenbrenner U, Morris P. The ecology of developmental processes. In: Damon W, Lerner RM, eds. Handbook of Child Psychology: Theoretical Models of Human Development. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 1998.993-1028.
Orom H, Semalulu T, Underwood W. The social and learning environments experienced by underrepresented minority medical students: a narrative review. Acad Med. 2013;88(11):1765-1777.
Campbell K, Rodriguez J. Addressing the minority tax: perspectives from two diversity leaders on building minority faculty success in academic medicine. Acad Med. 2019;94(12):1854-1857.
Frei E, Stamm M, Buddeberg-Fisher B. Mentoring programs for medical students - a review of the PubMed literature 2000-2008. BMC Med Educ. 2010;10:32.
Campbell K, Rodriguez J. Mentoring underrepresented minority in medicine (URMM) students across racial, ethnic and institutional differences. J Natl Med Assoc. 2018;110(5):421-423.
Rodriguez J, Campbell K, Pololi L. Addressing disparities in academic medicine: what of the minority tax? BMC Med Educ. 2015;15:6.
Mukherjee A, Kukherjee A, Godard B. Translating minoritized cultures: issues of caste, class and gender. Postcolonial Text. 2006;2(3):1-23.
Ladson-Billings G, Tate W. Toward a Critical Race Theory of Education. In: Dixson A, Anderson C, Donner J, eds. Critical Race Theory in Education. New York, NY: Routledge; 2016:1-22.
Tsai J, Crawford-Roberts A. A call for critical race theory in medical education. Acad Med. 2017;92(8):1072-1073.
Mohanty C, Russo A, Torres L, eds. Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press; 1991.
Zaidi Z, Larsen D. Commentary: paradigms, axiology, and praxeology in medical education research. Acad Med. 2018;93(11 Suppl):S1-S7.
Ko M, Ton H. The not underrepresented minorities: Asian Americans, diversity, and admissions. Acad Med. 2020;95(2):184-189.