The associations between migrant status and ethnicity and the identification of individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis and transition to psychosis: a systematic review.
Ethnicity
Migrants
Systematic review
Transition to psychosis
Ultra-high risk for psychosis
Journal
Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology
ISSN: 1433-9285
Titre abrégé: Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol
Pays: Germany
ID NLM: 8804358
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Nov 2021
Nov 2021
Historique:
received:
26
08
2020
accepted:
12
02
2021
pubmed:
1
3
2021
medline:
21
10
2021
entrez:
28
2
2021
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Migrant and ethnic minority populations exhibit a higher incidence of psychotic disorders. The Ultra-High Risk for psychosis (UHR) paradigm provides an opportunity to explore the stage at which such factors influence the development of psychosis. In this systematic review, we collate and appraise the literature on the association between ethnicity and migrant status and the rate of identification of individuals at UHR, as well as their rate of transition to psychosis. We conducted a systematic review in the Ovid Medline, PsychINFO, Pubmed, CINAHL and EMBASE databases according to PRISMA guidelines. We included studies written in English that included an UHR cohort, provided a measure of ethnicity or migrant status, and examined the incidence, rate, or risk of UHR identification or transition to psychosis. Of 2182 unique articles identified, seven fulfilled the criteria. One study found overrepresentation of UHR individuals from black ethnic groups, while another found underrepresentation. Two studies found increased rates of transition among certain ethnic groups and a further two found no association. Regarding migrant status, one study found that first-generation migrants were underrepresented in an UHR sample. Lastly, a lower transition rate in migrant populations was identified in one study, while two found no association. Rates of UHR identification and transition according to ethnic and migrant status were inconsistent and insufficient to conclusively explain higher incidences of psychotic disorders among these groups. We discuss the clinical implications and avenues for future research, which is required to clarify the nature of the associations.
Identifiants
pubmed: 33641006
doi: 10.1007/s00127-021-02047-3
pii: 10.1007/s00127-021-02047-3
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Systematic Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
1923-1941Subventions
Organisme : NHMRC Early Career Fellowship
ID : APP1142045
Informations de copyright
© 2021. Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature.
Références
Selten J-P, van der Vne E, Termorshuizen F (2020) Migration and psychosis: a meta-analysis of incidence studies. Psychol Med 50(2):303–313. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719000035
doi: 10.1017/S0033291719000035
pubmed: 30722795
Halvorsrud K, Nazroo J, Otis M, Brown Hajdukova E, Bhui K (2019) Ethnic inequalities in the incidence of diagnosis of severe mental illness in England: a systematic review and new meta-analyses for non-affective and affective psychoses. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 54(11):1311–1323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01758-y
doi: 10.1007/s00127-019-01758-y
pubmed: 31482194
Bhavsar V, Boydell J, Murray R, Power P (2014) Identifying aspects of neighbourhood deprivation associated with increased incidence of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 156(1):115–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.03.014
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.03.014
pubmed: 24731617
Cantor-Graae EZK, McNeil TF (2005) Increased risk of psychotic disorder among immigrants in Malmö: a 3-year first-contact study. Psychol Med 35(8):1155–1163. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291705004721
doi: 10.1017/S0033291705004721
pubmed: 16116941
Krupinski J, Cochrane R (1980) Migration and mental health — a comparative study. J Intercult Stud 1(1):49–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.036
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.036
Michaeline B, Melissa DB, Alan B, Catherine S, Nancy S, Beverly I, Leah V, Ezra S (2007) Race and risk of schizophrenia in a US birth cohort: another example of health disparity? Int J Epidemiol 36(4):751–758. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dym041
doi: 10.1093/ije/dym041
Paul F, Craig M (2006) Environmental factors in schizophrenia: the role of migrant studies. Schizophr Bull 32(3):405–408. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj076
doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbj076
Selten JP, Slaets JPJ, Kahn RS (1997) Schizophrenia in Surinamese and Dutch Antillean immigrants to The Netherlands: evidence of an increased incidence. Psychol Med 27(4):807–811. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291797005199
doi: 10.1017/s0033291797005199
pubmed: 9234459
Pignon B, Schürhoff F, Szöke A, Geoffroy PA, Jardri R, Roelandt J-L, Rolland B, Thomas P, Vaiva G, Amad A (2018) Sociodemographic and clinical correlates of psychotic symptoms in the general population: findings from the MHGP survey. Schizophr Res 193:336–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.06.053
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.06.053
pubmed: 28689754
Amad A, Guardia D, Salleron J, Thomas P, Roelandt J-L, Vaiva G (2013) Increased prevalence of psychotic disorders among third-generation migrants: results from the French mental health in general population survey. Schizophr Res 1:193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2013.03.011
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.03.011
James BK, Yasir H, Konstantinos I, Gayatri A, Carolyn MC, Mukhtar N, Nikolett K, Antonio M, Oliver J, Ashkan E, Styliani S, Danica R, Suneetha S, Ben W, Adewale A, Jesus P, Peter BJ (2017) Ethnic minority status, age-at-immigration and psychosis tisk in tural environments: evidence from the SEPEA study. Schizophr Bull 43(6):1251–1261. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx010
doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbx010
Kirkbride JB, Errazuriz A, Croudace TJ, Morgan C, Jackson D, Boydell J, Murray RM, Jones PB (2012) Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in England, 1950–2009: a systematic review and meta-analyses. PLoS ONE 7(3):e31660. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031660
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031660
pubmed: 22457710
pmcid: 3310436
Oduola S, Das-Munshi J, Bourque F, Gayer-Anderson C, Tsang J, Murray RM, Craig TKJ, Morgan C (2019) Change in incidence rates for psychosis in different ethnic groups in south London: findings from the Clinical Record interactive search-first episode psychosis (CRIS-FEP) study. Psychol Med. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719003234
doi: 10.1017/S0033291719003234
pubmed: 31739818
pmcid: 7893508
Paul F, James BK, Craig M, Paola D, Kevin M, Tuhina L, Gerard H, Jane T, Wai Lun AF, John H, Rosemarie M, Glynn H, Julian L, Peter BJ, Robin MM (2006) Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in ethnic minority groups: results from the MRC AESOP Study. Psychol Med 36(11):1541–1550. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706008774
doi: 10.1017/S0033291706008774
Veling W, Selten JP, Veen N, Laan W, Blom JD, Hoek HW (2006) Incidence of schizophrenia among ethnic minorities in the Netherlands: a four-year first-contact study. Schizophr Res 86(1–3):189–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.06.010
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.06.010
pubmed: 16839747
Jeremy WC, James BK, Dave B, Fiona C, Rebekah S, Min Y, Peter BJ (2008) Raised incidence rates of all psychoses among migrant groups: findings from the East London first episode psychosis study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65(11):1250–1258. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.65.11.1250
doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.65.11.1250
Jean-Paul S, Caroline Z, Rudi D, Vincent L, RenÉ SK, Peter N (2005) First-contact incidence of schizophrenia in Surinam. B J Psychiatry 186(1):74–75. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.186.1.74
doi: 10.1192/bjp.186.1.74
Bhugra D, Hilwig M, Hossein B, Marceau H, Neehall J, Leff J, Mallett R, Der G (1996) First-contact incidence rates of schizophrenia in Trinidad and one-year follow-up. B J Psychiatry 169(5):587–1192. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.169.5.587
doi: 10.1192/bjp.169.5.587
Baxter AJ, Charlson FJ, Cheng HG, Shidhaye R, Ferrari AJ, Whiteford HA (2016) Prevalence of mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in China and India: a systematic analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 3(9):832–841. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30139-0
doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30139-0
pubmed: 27528097
Paolo F-P, Ilaria B, Alison RY, Stefan B, Matthew JK, Lucia V, Francesco B, Edgardo C, Philip M (2012) Predicting psychosis: meta-analysis of transition outcomes in individuals at high clinical risk. Arch Gen Psychiatry 69(3):220–229. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1472
doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1472
Yung AR (1996) Monitoring and care of young people at incipient risk of psychosis. Schizophr Bull 22(2):283–303
doi: 10.1093/schbul/22.2.283
Yung AR, Yuen HP, McGorry PD, Phillips LJ, Kelly D, Dell’Olio M, Francey SM, Cosgrave EM, Killackey E, Stanford C, Godfrey K, Buckby J (2005) Mapping the onset of psychosis: the comprehensive assessment of at-risk mental states. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 39(11):964–971. https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.2005.01714.x
doi: 10.1080/j.1440-1614.2005.01714.x
pubmed: 16343296
Fusar-Poli P, Cappucciati M, Rutigliano G, Lee TY, Beverly Q, Bonoldi I, Lelli J, Kaar SJ, Gago E, Rocchetti M, Patel R, Bhavsar V, Tognin S, Badger S, Calem M, Lim K, Kwon JS, Perez J, McGuire P (2016) Towards a standard psychometric diagnostic interview for subjects at Ultra High Risk of psychosis: CAARMS versus SIPS. Psychiatry J. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7146341
doi: 10.1155/2016/7146341
pubmed: 27314005
pmcid: 4904115
Stephan R, Frauke S-L, Raimo KS, Markus H, Don L, Peter D, Max B, Paul P, Georg J, Andreas H, Anthony M, Shôn L, GvR H, Joachim K (2010) Prediction of psychosis in adolescents and young adults at high risk: results from the prospective European prediction of psychosis study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(3):241–251. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.206
doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.206
van Os J, Linscott RJ, Myin-Germeys I, Delespaul P, Krabbendam L (2009) A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness-persistence-impairment model of psychotic disorder. Psychol Med 39(2):179–195. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708003814
doi: 10.1017/S0033291708003814
pubmed: 18606047
Leaune E, Dealberto M-J, Luck D, Grot S, Zeroug-Vial H, Poulet E, Brunelin J (2019) Ethnic minority position and migrant status as risk factors for psychotic symptoms in the general population: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med 49(4):545–558. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718002271
doi: 10.1017/S0033291718002271
pubmed: 30178719
Morgan C, Bhugra D (2010) Principles of social psychiatry, 2nd edn. Wiley-Blackwell, London
doi: 10.1002/9780470684214
Cantor-Graae E, Selten JP (2005) Schizophrenia and migration: a meta-analysis and review. Am J Psychiatry 161(1):12–24. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.1.12
doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.1.12
McGrath J, Saha S, Welham J, El Saadi O, MacCauley C, Chant D (2004) A systematic review of the incidence of schizophrenia: the distribution of rates and the influence of sex, urbanicity, migrant status and methodology. BMC Med 2(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-2-13
doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-2-13
Byrne M, Codjoe L, Morgan C, Stahl D, Day F, Fearon P, Fusar-Poli P, Power P, McGuire P, Valmaggia L (2019) The relationship between ethnicity and service access, treatment uptake and the incidence of psychosis among people at ultra high risk for psychosis. Psychiatry Res 272:618–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.111
doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.111
pubmed: 30616132
Kirkbride JB, Stochl J, Zimbrón J, Crane CM, Metastasio A, Aguilar E, Webster R, Theegala S, Kabacs N, Jones PB, Perez J (2015) Social and spatial heterogeneity in psychosis proneness in a multilevel case-prodrome-control study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 132(4):283–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.12384
doi: 10.1111/acps.12384
pubmed: 25556912
Nelson B, Amminger GP, Yuen HP, Markulev C, Lavoie S, Schäfer MR, Hartmann JA, Mossaheb N, Schlögelhofer M, Smesny S, Hickie IB, Berger G, Chen EYH, de Haan L, Nieman DH, Nordentoft M, Riecher-Rössler A, Verma S, Thompson A, Yung AR, McGorry PD (2018) NEURAPRO: a multi-centre RCT of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids versus placebo in young people at ultra-high risk of psychotic disorders-medium-term follow-up and clinical course. NPJ Schizophr. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41537-018-0052-x
doi: 10.1038/s41537-018-0052-x
pubmed: 29941938
pmcid: 6018097
Brucato G, Masucci MD, Arndt LY, Ben-David S, Colibazzi T, Corcoran CM, Crumbley AH, Crump FM, Gill KE, Kimhy D, Lister A, Schobel SA, Yang LH, Lieberman JA, Girgis RR (2017) Baseline demographics, clinical features and predictors of conversion among 200 individuals in a longitudinal prospective psychosis-risk cohort. Psychol Med 47(11):1923–1935. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717000319
doi: 10.1017/S0033291717000319
pubmed: 28249639
pmcid: 5893280
Alderman T, Addington J, Bearden C, Cannon TD, Cornblatt BA, McGlashan TH, Perkins DO, Seidman LJ, Tsuang MT, Walker EF, Woods SW, Cadenhead KS (2015) Negative symptoms and impaired social functioning predict later psychosis in Latino youth at clinical high risk in the North American prodromal longitudinal studies consortium. Early Interv Psychiatry 9(6):467–475. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12128
doi: 10.1111/eip.12128
pubmed: 24576057
Geros H, Sizer H, Mifsud N, Reynolds S, Kim DJ, Eaton S, McGorry P, Nelson B, O’Donoghue B (2020) Migrant status and identification as ultra-high risk for psychosis and transitioning to a psychotic disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 141(1):52–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13099
doi: 10.1111/acps.13099
pubmed: 31520527
O’Donoghue B, Nelson B, Yuen HP, Lane A, Wood S, Thompson A, Lin A, McGorry P, Yung AR (2015) Social environmental risk factors for transition to psychosis in an Ultra-High Risk population. Schizophr Res 161(2–3):150–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.10.050
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.10.050
pubmed: 25439392
Tortelli A, Nakamura A, Suprani F, Schurhoff F, Van der Waerden J, Szoke A, Tarricone I, Pignon B (2018) Subclinical psychosis in adult migrants and ethnic minorities: systematic review and meta-analysis. B J Psychiatry 4(6):510–518. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2018.68
doi: 10.1192/bjo.2018.68
McGrath J, El-Saadi O, Cardy S, Chapple B, Chant D, Mowry B (2001) Urban birth and migrant status as risk factors for psychosis: an Australian case-control study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 36(11):533–536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001270170003
doi: 10.1007/s001270170003
pubmed: 11824847
Qiu Y, Li L, Gan Z, Wang J, Zheng L, Zhao J, Guan N, Wei Q (2019) Factors related to duration of untreated psychosis of first episode schizophrenia spectrum disorder. Early Interv Psychiatry 13(3):555–561
doi: 10.1111/eip.12519
Morgan C, Abdul-Al R, Lappin JM, Jones P, Fearon P, Leese M, Croudace T, Morgan K, Dazzan P, Craig T (2006) Clinical and social determinants of duration of untreated psychosis in the AESOP first-episode psychosis study. B J Psychiatry 189(5):446–452. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.021303
doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.106.021303
Ku BS, Pauselli L, Manseau M, Compton MT (2020) Neighborhood-level predictors of age at onset and duration of untreated psychosis in first-episode psychotic disorders. Schizophr Res 218:247–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.036
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.036
pubmed: 31948900
pmcid: 7299734
Hardy KV, Noordsy DL, Ballon JS, McGovern MP, Salomon C, Wiltsey Stirman S (2018) Impact of age of onset of psychosis and engagement in higher education on duration of untreated psychosis. J Ment Health 27(3):257–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2018.1466047
doi: 10.1080/09638237.2018.1466047
pubmed: 29707996
Rathod S, Kingdon D, Smith P, Turkington D (2005) Insight into schizophrenia: the effects of cognitive behavioural therapy on the components of insight and association with sociodemographics—data on a previously published randomised controlled trial. Schizophr Res 74(2):211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2004.07.003
doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.07.003
pubmed: 15722001
Campbell DB, Ebert PJ, Skelly T, Stroup TS, Lieberman J, Levitt P, Sullivan PF (2008) Ethnic stratification of the association of RGS4 variants with antipsychotic treatment response in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 63(1):32–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.018
doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.04.018
pubmed: 17588543
Nerhus M, Berg AO, Haram M, Kvitland LR, Andreassen OA, Melle I (2015) Migrant background and ethnic minority status as predictors for duration of untreated psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry 9(1):61–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12106
doi: 10.1111/eip.12106
pubmed: 24225002
Boonstra N, Sterk B, Wunderink L, Sytema S, De Haan L, Wiersma D (2012) Association of treatment delay, migration and urbanicity in psychosis. Eur Psychiatry 27(7):500–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.05.001
doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2011.05.001
pubmed: 21705200
Thomson MS, Chaze F, George U, Guruge S (2015) Improving immigrant populations’ access to mental health services in Canada: a review of barriers and recommendations. J Immigr Minor Health 17(6):1895–1905. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2018.68
doi: 10.1192/bjo.2018.68
pubmed: 25742880
Heidi B, Miller AB, Baldwin H, Abdi S (2011) New directions in refugee youth mental health services: overcoming barriers to engagement. J Child Adolescent Trauma 4(1):69–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2011.545047
doi: 10.1080/19361521.2011.545047
Jensen NK, Norredam M, Priebe S, Krasnik A (2013) How do general practitioners experience providing care to refugees with mental health problems? A qualitative study from Denmark. BMC Fam Pract 14:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2296-14-17
doi: 10.1186/1471-2296-14-17
pubmed: 23356401
pmcid: 3568406
Lindert J, Schouler-Ocak M, Heinz A, Priebe S (2008) Mental health, health care utilisation of migrants in Europe. Eur Psychiatry 23(Supplement 1):14–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(08)70057-9
doi: 10.1016/S0924-9338(08)70057-9
pubmed: 18371575
Eisenman DP, Gelberg L, Liu H, Shapiro MF, Eisenman DP, Gelberg L, Liu H, Shapiro MF (2003) Mental health and health-related quality of life among adult Latino primary care patients living in the United States with previous exposure to political violence. JAMA 290(5):627–634. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.5.627
doi: 10.1001/jama.290.5.627
pubmed: 12902366
Cleary SD, Snead R, Dietz-Chavez D, Rivera I, Edberg MC (2018) Immigrant trauma and mental health outcomes among Latino youth. J Immigr Minor Health 20(5):1053. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-017-0673-6
doi: 10.1007/s10903-017-0673-6
pubmed: 29139024
pmcid: 6436088
Betancourt TS, Newnham EA, Birman D, Lee R, Ellis BH, Layne CM (2017) Comparing trauma exposure, mental health needs, and service utilization across clinical samples of refugee, immigrant, and US-origin children. J Trauma Stress 3:209. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22186
doi: 10.1002/jts.22186
Tinghög P, Hemmingsson T, Lundberg I, Tinghog P (2007) To what extent may the association between immigrant status and mental illness be explained by socioeconomic factors? Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 42(12):990–996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0253-5
doi: 10.1007/s00127-007-0253-5
pubmed: 17846697
Sylke Viola S (2007) Immigrants’ educational disadvantage: an examination across ten countries and three surveys. J Popul Econ 20(3):527
doi: 10.1007/s00148-006-0102-y
Reeder FD, Husain N, Rhouma A, Haddad PM, Munshi T, Naeem F, Khachatryan D, Chaudhry IB (2017) The relationship between childhood trauma and adult psychosis in a UK Early Intervention Service: results of a retrospective case note study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat ume 13:269–273
doi: 10.2147/NDT.S98605
Kroll J, Yusuf AI, Fujiwara K (2011) Psychoses, PTSD, and depression in Somali refugees in Minnesota. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 46(6):481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0216-0
doi: 10.1007/s00127-010-0216-0
pubmed: 20354676
Gibson LE, Alloy LB, Ellman LM (2016) Trauma and the psychosis spectrum: a review of symptom specificity and explanatory mechanisms. Clin Psychol Rev 49:92–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.08.003
doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2016.08.003
pubmed: 27632064
pmcid: 5157832
Wing Chung C, Sau Man Wong C, Yu Hai Chen E, Chiu Wa Lam L, Wai Chi C, Man Kin Ng R, Se Fong H, Fuk Chi Cheung E, Pak Chung S, Helen Fung Kum C, Ming L, Ming Ho, Lee E, Tin Po C, Lap Kei C, Wai K, Lau G, Chun T, Lee A, Tak Yu, Leung G, Yan S, Leung J, Tak Fai Lau J, van Os J (2017) Lifetime prevalence and correlates of schizophrenia-spectrum, affective, and other non-affective psychotic disorders in the Chinese adult population. Schizophr Bull 43(6):1280–1290. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx056
doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbx056
Esben A, Patrick FS, Bjarni JV, Carsten BP, Ole M, Anders DB, David MH, Mads VH, Sandra M, Manuel M, Stephan R, Naomi RW, Preben BM (2015) Polygenic risk score, parental socioeconomic status, family history of psychiatric disorders, and the risk for schizophrenia: a Danish population-based study and meta-analysis. JAMA 72(7):635–641. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0346
doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0346
O’Donoghue B, Downey L, Eaton S, Mifsud N, Kirkbride JB, McGorry P (2020) Risk of psychotic disorders in migrants to Australia. Psychol Med. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719004100
doi: 10.1017/S0033291719004100
pubmed: 31996272
Oliver D, Reilly TJ, Baccaredda Boy O, Petros N, Davies C, Borgwardt S, McGuire P, Fusar-Poli P (2020) What causes the onset of psychosis in individuals at clinical high risk? A meta-analysis of risk and protective factors. Schizophr Bull 46(1):110–120. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbz039
doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbz039
pubmed: 31219164
Radua J, Ramella-Cravaro V, Ioannidis JP, Reichenberg A, Phiphopthatsanee N, Amir T, Yenn Thoo H, Oliver D, Davies C, Morgan C (2018) What causes psychosis? An umbrella review of risk and protective factors. World Psychiatry 17(1):49–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20490
doi: 10.1002/wps.20490
pubmed: 29352556
pmcid: 5775150
Singh SP, Brown L, Winsper C, Gajwani R, Islam Z, Jasani R, Parsons H, Rabbie-Khan F, Birchwood M (2015) Ethnicity and pathways to care during first episode psychosis: the role of cultural illness attributions. BMC Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0665-9
doi: 10.1186/s12888-015-0665-9
pubmed: 26573297
pmcid: 4647639
Margarita A, Glorisa C, Shenghan L, Rafael RR, Ligia C, Dana R, Patrick ES (2004) Understanding caregivers’ help-seeking for Latino children’s mental health care use. Med Care 42(5):447–455. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mlr.0000124248.64190.56
doi: 10.1097/01.mlr.0000124248.64190.56
Kular A, Perry BI, Brown L, Gajwani R, Jasini R, Islam Z, Birchwood M, Singh SP (2019) Stigma and access to care in first-episode psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry 13(5):1208–1213. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12756
doi: 10.1111/eip.12756
pubmed: 30411522
Chipps J, Oosthuizen F, Buthelezi MB, Buthelezi MM, Buthelezi PF, Jeewa S, Munsami S, Simamane BC, Singh P, Vaid BA, Ramlall S (2015) Knowledge, beliefs and mental treatment seeking practices of Black African and Indian outpatients in Durban, South Africa. Afr J Phys Health Educ Recreat Dance 1(Supplement 1):186–196
Odinka PC, Oche M, Ndukuba AC, Muomah RC, Osika MU, Bakare MO, Agomoh AO, Uwakwe R (2014) The socio-demographic characteristics and patterns of help-seeking among patients with schizophrenia in South-east Nigeria. J Health Care Poor Underserved 25(1):180–191. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2014.0055
doi: 10.1353/hpu.2014.0055
pubmed: 24509019
Marthoenis M, Aichberger MC (2016) Schouler-Ocak M (2016) Patterns and determinants of treatment seeking among previously untreated psychotic patients in Aceh province, Indonesia: a qualitative study. Scientifica 4:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9136079
doi: 10.1155/2016/9136079
Assad T, Okasha T, Ramy H, Goueli T, El-Shinnawy H, Nasr M, Fathy H, Enaba D, Ibrahim D, Elhabiby M (2015) Role of traditional healers in the pathway to care of patients with bipolar disorder in Egypt. Int J Soc Psychiatry 61(6):583–590. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764014565799
doi: 10.1177/0020764014565799
pubmed: 25575578
Velthorst E, Nieman DH, Veling W, Klaassen RM, Dragt S, Rietdijk J, Ising H, Wunderink L, Linszen DH, de Haan L, van der Gaag M (2012) Ethnicity and baseline symptomatology in patients with an at risk mental state for psychosis. Psychol Med 42(2):247–256. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711001486
doi: 10.1017/S0033291711001486
pubmed: 21835093
Guloksuz S, Pries L-K, Ten Have M, de Graaf R, van Dorsselaer S, Klingenberg B, Bak M, Lin BD, van Eijk KR, Delespaul P, van Amelsvoort T, Luykx JJ, Rutten BPF, van Os J (2020) Association of preceding psychosis risk states and non-psychotic mental disorders with incidence of clinical psychosis in the general population: a prospective study in the NEMESIS-2 cohort. World Psychiatry 19(2):199–205. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20755
doi: 10.1002/wps.20755
pubmed: 32394548
pmcid: 7215054
Shah JL, Crawford A, Mustafa SS, Iyer SN, Joober R, Malla AK (2017) Is the clinical high-risk state a valid concept? Retrospective examination in a first-episode psychosis sample. Psychiatric Services 68(10):1046–1052. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201600304
doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.201600304
pubmed: 28617204
Pearce J, Rafiq S, Simpson J, Varese F (2019) Perceived discrimination and psychosis: a systematic review of the literature. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 54(9):1023–1044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01729-3
doi: 10.1007/s00127-019-01729-3
pubmed: 31236631
Bosqui TJ, Hoy K, Shannon C (2014) A systematic review and meta-analysis of the ethnic density effect in psychotic disorders. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 49(4):519–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-013-0773-0
doi: 10.1007/s00127-013-0773-0
pubmed: 24114240
McGorry PD, Hartmann JA, Spooner R, Nelson B (2018) Beyond the “at risk mental state’ concept: transitioning to transdiagnostic psychiatry. World Psychiatry 17:133–142. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20514
doi: 10.1002/wps.20514
pubmed: 29856558
pmcid: 5980504