Association of Veterinary Hematology and Transfusion Medicine (AVHTM) transfusion reaction small animal consensus statement (TRACS). Part 3: Diagnosis and treatment.
anaphylaxis
corticosteroids
fever
hemolysis
transfusion reactions
Journal
Journal of veterinary emergency and critical care (San Antonio, Tex. : 2001)
ISSN: 1476-4431
Titre abrégé: J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio)
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 101152804
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Mar 2021
Mar 2021
Historique:
received:
31
12
2020
accepted:
06
02
2021
pubmed:
23
3
2021
medline:
17
6
2021
entrez:
22
3
2021
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
To systematically review available evidence to develop guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of transfusion-associated reactions in dogs and cats. Standardized and systemic evaluation of the literature (identified through Medline via PubMed and Google Scholar searches) was carried out for identified transfusion reaction types in dogs and cats. The available evidence was evaluated using PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome) questions generated for each reaction type. The evidence was categorized by level of evidence (LOE) and quality (Good, Fair, or Poor). Guidelines, diagnostic, and treatment algorithms were generated based on the evaluation of the evidence. Consensus on the final guidelines was achieved through Delphi-style surveys. Draft recommendations were disseminated through veterinary specialty listservs for review and comments, which were evaluated and integrated prior to final publication. Medline via PubMed and Google Scholar databases were searched. There were 14 Population Intervention Comparison Outcome questions identified and corresponding worksheets were developed focusing on the diagnosis and treatment of transfusion-associated reactions in dogs and cats. Fourteen guidelines and four algorithms were developed with a high degree of consensus. This systematic evidence evaluation process yielded recommended diagnostic and treatment algorithms for use in practice. However, significant knowledge gaps were identified, demonstrating the need for additional research in veterinary transfusion medicine.
Types de publication
Consensus Development Conference
Journal Article
Systematic Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
189-203Informations de copyright
© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2021.
Références
Hourani L, Weingart C, Kohn B. Alloimmunisation in transfused patients: serial cross-matching in a population of hospitalised cats. J Feline Med Surg. 2017;19(12):1231-1237.
Holowaychuk MK, Leader JL, Monteith G. Risk factors for transfusion-associated complications and nonsurvival in dogs receiving packed red blood cell transfusions: 211 cases (2008-2011). Marie J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2014;244(4):431-437.
Bruce JA, Kriese-Anderson L, Bruce AM, Pittman JR. Effect of premedication and other factors on the occurrence of acute transfusion reactions in dogs. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2015;25(5):620-630.
Goggs R, Blais MC, Brainard BM, et al. American College of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care (ACVECC) Consensus on the Rational Use of Antithrombotics in Veterinary Critical Care (CURATIVE) guidelines: small animal. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2019;29(1):12-36.
Boller M, Fletcher DJ, Brainard BM, et al. Utstein-style guidelines on uniform reporting of in-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation in dogs and cats. A RECOVER statement. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2016;26(1):11-34.
Polzin DJ, Cowgill LD. Development of Clinical Guidelines for Management of Glomerular Disease in Dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2013;27(S1):S2-S4.
Loblaw DA, Prestrud AA, Somerfield MR, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guidelines: formal systematic review-based consensus methodology. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2012;30(25):3136-3140.
Jagodich TA, Holowaychuk MK. Transfusion practice in dogs and cats: an Internet-based survey. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2016;26(3):360-372.
Maglaras CH, Koenig A, Bedard DL, Brainard BM. Retrospective evaluation of the effect of red blood cell product age on occurrence of acute transfusion-related complications in dogs: 210 cases (2010-2012). J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2017;27(1):108-120.
Kleinman S, Kor DJ. Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). Waltham, MA. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/transfusion-related-acute-lung-injury-trali. March 6, 2020. Accessed Dec 28,2020. Available at.
Benson AB, Moss M, Silliman CC. Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI): a clinical review with emphasis on the critically ill. British Journal of Haematology. 2009;147(4):431-443.
Carcano C, Okafor N, Martinez F, Ramirez J, Kanne J, Kirsch J. Radiographic manifestations of transfusion-related acute lung injury. Clinical Imaging. 2013;37(6):1020-1023.
Wilson HE, Jasani S, Wagner TB, et al. Signs of left heart volume overload in severely anaemic cats. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 2010;12(12):904-909.
Cambournac M, Goy-Thollot I, Violé A, Boisvineau C, Pouzot-Nevoret C, Barthélemy A. Sonographic assessment of volaemia: development and validation of a new method in dogs. Journal of Small Animal Practice. 2018;59(3):174-182. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsap.12759.
Darnis E, Boysen S, Merveille AC, Desquilbet L, Chalhoub S, Gommeren K. Establishment of reference values of the caudal vena cava by fast-ultrasonography through different views in healthy dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2018;32(4):1308-1318.
Herreria-Bustillo VJ, Fitzgerald E, Humm KR. Caval-aortic ratio and caudal vena cava diameter in dogs before and after blood donation. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2019;29(6):643-646.
Roubinian N. TACO and TRALI: biology, Risk Factors, and Prevention Strategies. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2018;2018(1):585-594.
Li G, Daniels CE, Kojicic M, et al. The accuracy of natriuretic peptides (brain natriuretic peptide and N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic) in the differentiation between transfusion-related acute lung injury and transfusion-related circulatory overload in the critically ill. Transfusion. 2009;49(1):13-20.
Li G, Rachmale S, Kojicic M, et al. Incidence and transfusion risk factors for transfusion-associated circulatory overload among medical intensive care unit patients. Transfusion. 2011;51(2):338-343.
Zhou L, Giacherio D, Cooling L, Davenport RD. Use of B-natriuretic peptide as a diagnostic marker in the differential diagnosis of transfusion-associated circulatory overload. Transfusion. 2005;45(7):1056-1063.
Roubinian NH, Looney MR, Keating S, et al. Differentiating pulmonary transfusion reactions using recipient and transfusion factors. Transfusion. 2017;57(7):1684-1690.
Tobian AAR, Sokoll LJ, Tisch DJ, Ness PM, Shan H. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide is a useful diagnostic marker for transfusion-associated circulatory overload. Transfusion. 2008;48(6):1143-1150.
Klanderman RB, Bosboom JJ, Migdady Y, et al. Transfusion-associated circulatory overload-a systematic review of diagnostic biomarkers. Transfusion. 2019;59(2):795-805.
Singletary GE, Rush JE, Fox PR, Stepien RL, Oyama MA. Effect of NT-pro-BNP Assay on Accuracy and Confidence of General Practitioners in Diagnosing Heart Failure or Respiratory Disease in Cats with Respiratory Signs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2012;26(3):542-546.
Ward JL, Lisciandro GR, Ware WA, et al. Evaluation of point-of-care thoracic ultrasound and NT-proBNP for the diagnosis of congestive heart failure in cats with respiratory distress. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2018;32(5):1530-1540.
Oyama MA, Fox PR, Rush JE, Rozanski EA, Lesser M. Clinical utility of serum N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide concentration for identifying cardiac disease in dogs and assessing disease severity. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2008;232(10):1496-1503.
Fox PR, Oyama MA, Reynolds C, et al. Utility of plasma N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) to distinguish between congestive heart failure and non-cardiac causes of acute dyspnea in cats. J Vet Cardiol. 2009;11(SUPPL. 1):S51-61.
Oyama MA, Boswood A, Connolly DJ, et al. Clinical usefulness of an assay for measurement of circulating n-terminal pro-b-type natriuretic peptide concentration in dogs and cats with heart disease. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2013;243(1):71-82.
Fine DM, DeClue AE, Reinero CR. Evaluation of circulating amino terminal-pro-B-type natriuretic peptide concentration in dogs with respiratory distress attributable to congestive heart failure or primary pulmonary disease. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2008;232(11):1674-1679.
Oyama MA, Rush JE, Rozanski EA, et al. Assessment of serum N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide concentration for differentiation of congestive heart failure from primary respiratory tract disease as the cause of respiratory signs in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2009;235(11):1319-1325.
Hann L, Brown DC, King LG, Callan MB. Effect of Duration of Packed Red Blood Cell Storage on Morbidity and Mortality in Dogs After Transfusion: 3,095 cases (2001-2010). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2014;28(6):1830-1837.
Martinez-Sogues L, Blois SL, Manzanilla EG, Abrams-Ogg AO, Cosentino P. Exploration of risk factors for non-survival and for transfusion-associated complications in cats receiving red cell transfusions: 450 cases (2009 to 2017). Journal of Small Animal Practice. 2020;61(3):177-184.
Sylvane B, Prittie J, Hohenhaus AE, Tozier E. Effect of cross-match on packed cell volume after transfusion of packed red blood cells in transfusion-naïve anemic cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2018;32(3):1077-1083.
McClosky ME, Cimino Brown D, Weinstein NM, et al. Prevalence of naturally occurring non-AB blood type incompatibilities in cats and influence of crossmatch on transfusion outcomes. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2018;32(6):1934-1942.
Mansi ET, Waldrop JE, Davidow EB. Retrospective evaluation of the indications, safety and effects of fresh frozen plasma transfusions in 36 cats (2014-2018). Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 2020;22(8):696-704.
Klaser DA, Reine NJ, Hohenhaus AE. Red blood cell transfusions in cats: 126 cases (1999). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2005;226(6):920-923.
Delaney M, Wendel S, Bercovitz RS, et al. Transfusion reactions: prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Lancet. 2016;388(10061):2825-2836.
Kopko PM, Holland P V. Mechanisms of severe transfusion reactions. Transfusion Clinique Et Biologique. 2001;8(3):278-281.
Rachoin JS, Daher R, Schorr C, Milcarek B, Parrillo JE, Gerber DR. Microbiology, time course and clinical characteristics of infection in critically ill patients receiving packed red blood cell transfusion. Vox Sanguinis. 2009;97(4):294-302.
Funk MB, Lohmann A, Guenay S, et al. Transfusion-transmitted bacterial infections-haemovigilance data of German blood establishments (1997-2010). Transfus Med Hemotherapy. 2011;38(4):266-271.
Lafeuillade B, Eb F, Ounnoughene N, et al. Residual risk and retrospective analysis of transfusion-transmitted bacterial infection reported by the French National Hemovigilance Network from 2000 to 2008. Transfusion. 2015;55(3):636-646.
Hong H, Xiao W, Lazarus HM, Good CE, Maitta RW, Jacobs MR. Detection of septic transfusion reactions to platelet transfusions by active and passive surveillance. Blood. 2016;127(4):496-502.
Eder AF, Goldman M. How do I investigate septic transfusion reactions and blood donors with culture-positive platelet donations?. Transfusion. 2011;51(8):1662-1668.
Robillard P, Delage G, Karl Itaj N, Goldman M. Use of hemovigilance data to evaluate the effectiveness of diversion and bacterial detection. Transfusion. 2011;51(7):1405-1411.
Traore AN, Delage G, McCombie N, et al. Clinical and laboratory practices in investigation of suspected transfusion-transmitted bacterial infection: a survey of Canadian hospitals. Vox Sanguinis. 2009;96(2):157-159.
Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research. (2020). Bacterial Risk Control Strategies for Blood Collection Establishments and Transfusion Services to Enhance the Safety and Availability of Platelets for Transfusion. Silver Spring, MD: FDA; Available at: https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/bacterial-risk-control-strategies-blood-collection-establishments-and-transfusion-services-enhance. Accessed: December 27, 2020. www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guida. Accessed: December, 2020.
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). The National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Manual: Biovigilance Component v2.5. Atlanta, GA; Available at: www.cdc.gov/nhsn, Accessed: December 27, 2020.
Stefanetti V, Miglio A, Cappelli K, et al. Detection of bacterial contamination and DNA quantification in stored blood units in 2 veterinary hospital blood banks. Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 2016;45(3):406-410.
Tinegate H, Birchall J, Gray A, et al. Guideline on the investigation and management of acute transfusion reactions Prepared by the BCSH Blood Transfusion Task Force. British Journal of Haematology. 2012;159(2):143-153.
Bizikova P, Papich MG, Olivry T. Hydroxyzine and cetirizine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics after oral and intravenous administration of hydroxyzine to healthy dogs. Veterinary Dermatology. 2008;19(6):348-357.
Ehling S, Bäumer W, Papich MG. Diphenhydramine pharmacokinetics after oral and intravenous administration of diphenhydramine and oral administration of dimenhydrinate to healthy dogs, and pharmacodynamic effect on histamine-induced wheal formation: a pilot study. Veterinary Dermatology. 2019;30(2):91.
McMichael M. Prevention and treatment of transfusion reactions. In: Silverstein DC, Hopper K, eds. Small Animal Critical Care Medicine. 2nd ed. St Louis: Elsevier; 2015:333-337.
Shaker MS, Wallace DV, Golden DBK, et al. Anaphylaxis-a 2020 practice parameter update, systematic review, and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) analysis. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2020;145(4):1082-1123.
Hirayama F. Current understanding of allergic transfusion reactions: incidence, pathogenesis, laboratory tests, prevention and treatment. British Journal of Haematology. 2013;160(4):434-444.
British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Milkins C, Berryman J, et al, British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines for pre-transfusion compatibility procedures in blood transfusion laboratories. British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Transfusion Medicine. 2013;23(1):3-35.
Campbell RL, Li JTC, Nicklas RA, Sadosty AT. Emergency department diagnosis and treatment of anaphylaxis: a practice parameter. Ann Allergy, Asthma Immunol. 2014;113(6):599-608.
Choo KJL, Simons E, Sheikh A. Glucocorticoids for the treatment of anaphylaxis: cochrane systematic review. Allergy. 2010;65(10):1205-1211.
Alqurashi W, Ellis AK. Do Corticosteroids Prevent Biphasic Anaphylaxis?. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2017;5(5):1194-1205.
Mink SN, Simons FER, Simons KJ, Becker AB, Duke K. Constant infusion of epinephrine, but not bolus treatment, improves haemodynamic recovery in anaphylactic shock in dogs. Clinical and Experimental Allergy. 2004;34(11):1776-1783.
Mitchell1 HW, Sparrow MP. The effect of catecholamines on the in vivo and in vitro responses of the cat lung during anaphylaxis. British Journal of Pharmacology. 1977;61(4):533-540.
Lulich KM, Mitchell HW, Sparrow MP. The cat lung strip as an in vitro preparation of peripheral airways: a comparison of beta-adrenoceptor agonists, autacoids and anaphylactic challenge on the lung strip and trachea. British Journal of Pharmacology. 1976;58(1):71-79.
Mink SN, Bands C, Becker A, et al. Effect of Bolus Epinephrine on Systemic Hemodynamics in Canine Anaphylactic Shock. Cardiovascular Research. 1998;40(3):546-556.
Shmuel DL, Cortes Y. Anaphylaxis in dogs and cats. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2013;23(4):377-394.
Smith RM, Wurlod VA, Ralph AG, Daniels ER, Mitchell M. Mortality rate and prognostic factors for dogs with severe anaphylaxis: 67 cases (2016-2018). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2020;256(10):1137-1144.
Savage WJ, Tobian AAR, Savage JH, et al. Transfusion and component characteristics are not associated with allergic transfusion reactions to apheresis platelets. Transfusion. 2015;55(2):296-300.
Chiaramonte D. Blood-component therapy: selection, administration and monitoring. Clinical Techniques in Small Animal Practice. 2004;19(2):63-67.
Patterson J, Rousseau A, Kessler RJ, Giger U. In vitro lysis and acute transfusion reactions with hemolysis caused by inappropriate storage of canine red blood cell products. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 2011;25(4):927-933.
Davidow EB, Brainard B, Martin LG, et al. Use of fresh platelet concentrate or lyophilized platelets in thrombocytopenic dogs with clinical signs of hemorrhage: a preliminary trial in 37 dogs. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2012;22(1):116-125.
Torres R, Kenney B, Tormey CA. Diagnosis, Treatment, and Reporting of Adverse Effects of Transfusion. Lab Med. 2012;43(5):217-231.
Panch SR, Montemayor-Garcia C, Klein HG. Hemolytic Transfusion Reactions. New England Journal of Medicine. 2019;381(2):150-162.
Kennedy LAD, Case LD, Hurd DD, Cruz JM, Pomper GJ. A prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled trial of acetaminophen and diphenhydramine pretransfusion medication versus placebo for the prevention of transfusion reactions. Transfusion. 2008;48(11):2285-2291.
Tocci LJ. Transfusion Medicine in Small Animal Practice. Vet Clin North Am - Small Anim Pract. 2010;40(3):485-494.
Hernández-Avalos I, Valverde A, Ibancovichi-Camarillo JA, et al. Clinical evaluation of postoperative analgesia, cardiorespiratory parameters and changes in liver and renal function tests of paracetamol compared to meloxicam and carprofen in dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy. Plos One. 2020;15(2):1-15.
Pacheco M, Knowles TG, Hunt J, Slingsby LS, Taylor PM, Murrell JC. Comparing paracetamol/codeine and meloxicam for postoperative analgesia in dogs: a non-inferiority trial. Veterinary Record. 2020;187(8):1-9.
Savides MC, Oehme FW, Nash SL, Leipold HW. The toxicity and biotransformation of single doses of acetaminophen in dogs and cats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1984;74(1):26-34.
Pendergrast J, Armali C, Cserti-Gazdewich C, et al. Can furosemide prevent transfusion-associated circulatory overload? Results of a pilot, double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Transfusion. 2019;5 (6):1997-2006.
Sarai M, Tejani AM. Loop diuretics for patients receiving blood transfusions. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online). 2015;2015(2):CD010138.
Balegar VKK, Kluckow M. Furosemide for Packed Red Cell Transfusion in Preterm Infants: a Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Pediatrics. 2011;159(6):913-918.e1.
Faris RF, Flather M, Purcell H, Poole-Wilson PA, Coats AJ. Diuretics for heart failure. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2012;2012(2):CD003838.
Lindgren L, Yli-Hankala A, Halme L, Koskimies S, Orko R. Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) after fresh frozen plasma in a patient with coagulopathy. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. 1996;40(5):641-644.
Davis A, Mandal R, Johnson M, Makar R, Stowell C, Dzik S. A touch of TRALI. Transfusion. 2008;48(3):541-545.
Roubinian NH, Murphy EL. Transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO): prevention, management, and patient outcomes. Int J Clin Transfus Med. 2015;3:17-28.
Levy GJ, Shabot MM, Hart ME, Mya WW, Goldfinger D. Transfusion-associated noncardiogenic pulmonary edema: report of a case and a warning regarding treatment. Transfusion. 1986;26(3):278-281.
Swanson K, Dwyre DM, Krochmal J, Raife TJ. Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI): current clinical and pathophysiologic considerations. Lung. 2006;184(3):177-185.
Álvarez P, Carrasco R, Romero-Dapueto C, Castillo RL. Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injured (TRALI): current Concepts. Open Respir Med J. 2015;9:92-96.
<number>86</number(2000). >Ventilation with Lower Tidal Volumes as Compared with Traditional Tidal Volumes for Acute Lung Injury and the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 342:1301-1308.
Vlaar APJ, Wolthuis EK, Hofstra JJ, et al. Mechanical ventilation aggravates transfusion-related acute lung injury induced by MHC-I class antibodies. Intensive Care Medicine. 2010;36:879-887.
Arewa OP, Nahirniak S, Clarke G. Anti-HPA-1b mediated posttransfusion purpura: a case report. Case Rep Med. 2013;2013:568364.
Albalawi M, Zolaly M, Alkhayat N. Current Understanding of Post Transfusion Purpura: a Systematic Review. J Am Sci. 2015;11(10):146-151.
Rafei H, Yunus R, Nassereddine S. Post-Transfusion Purpura: a Case Report of an Underdiagnosed Phenomenon. Cureus. 2017;9(5):e1207.
Hawkins J, Aster R, Curtis B. Post-transfusion purpura: current perspectives. J Blood Med. 2019;10:4015-4415.
Slichter S. Post-transfusion purpura: response to steroids and association with red blood cell and lymphocytotoxic antibodies. British Journal of Haematology. 1982;50:599-605.
Vu K, Leavitt AD. Posttransfusion purpura with antibodies against human platelet antigen-4a following checkpoint inhibitor therapy: a case report and review of the literature. Transfusion. 2018;58(10):2265-2269.
Falk G, Winans CG, Bowens K, Bougie DW, Curtis BR, Aster RH. An unexpected development after surgery-post-transfusion purpura!. American Journal of Hematology. 2016;91(8):848-851.
Wardrop KJ, Lewis D, Marks S, Buss M. Posttransfusion purpura in a dog with hemophilia A. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 1997;11(4):261-263.
Jutkowitz LA, Rozanski EA, Moreau JA, Rush JE. Massive transfusion in dogs: 15 cases (1997-2001). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2002;220(11):1664-1669.
Giancarelli A, Birrer KL, Alban RF, Hobbs BP, Liu-Deryke X. Hypocalcemia in trauma patients receiving massive transfusion. Journal of Surgical Research. 2016;202(1):182-187.
Steele T, Kolamunnage-Dona R, Downey C, Toh CH, Welters I. Assessment and clinical course of hypocalcemia in critical illness. Critical Care (London, England). 2012;17:R106.
Elmer J, Wilcox SR, Raja AS. Massive transfusion in traumatic shock. Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2013;44(4):829-838.
Lynch AM, O'Toole TE, Respess M. Transfusion practices for treatment of dogs hospitalized following trauma: 125 cases (2008-2013). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 2015;247(6):643-649.
Pfaff AW, Rozanski EA, Lynch AM. Massive haemorrhage associated with inadvertent incision of a suspected carotid artery pseudoaneurysm in a cat. Journal of Small Animal Practice. 2015;56(12):720-722.
Ghosal RDK, Bos A. Successful management of catastrophic peripheral vascular hemorrhage using massive autotransfusion and damage control surgery in a dog. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2019;29(4):439-443.
Robinson DA, Kiefer K, Bassett R, Quandt J. Autotransfusion in dogs using a 2-syringe technique. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2016;26(6):766-774.
Crump KL, Seshadri R. Use of therapeutic plasmapheresis in a case of canine immune-mediated hemolytic anemia. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2009;19(4):375-380.
Perkins HA, Thacher C, Rolfs MR. Measurement of calcium ion levels during massive transfusion of citrated blood. Bibliotheca Haematologica. 1965;23:1145-1148.
Fukuda T, Toyoshima S, Nakashima Y, Koshitani O, Kawaguchi Y, Momii A. Tolerable infusion rate of citrate based on clinical signs and the electrocardiogram in conscious dogs. Clinical Nutrition. 2006;25(6):984-993.