New Approaches to Cardiovascular Disease and Its Management in Kidney Transplant Recipients.
Journal
Transplantation
ISSN: 1534-6080
Titre abrégé: Transplantation
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 0132144
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
01 06 2022
01 06 2022
Historique:
pubmed:
3
12
2021
medline:
31
5
2022
entrez:
2
12
2021
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Cardiovascular events, including ischemic heart disease, heart failure, and arrhythmia, are common complications after kidney transplantation and continue to be leading causes of graft loss. Kidney transplant recipients have both traditional and transplant-specific risk factors for cardiovascular disease. In the general population, modification of cardiovascular risk factors is the best strategy to reduce cardiovascular events; however, studies evaluating the impact of risk modification strategies on cardiovascular outcomes among kidney transplant recipients are limited. Furthermore, there is only minimal guidance on appropriate cardiovascular screening and monitoring in this unique patient population. This review focuses on the limited scientific evidence that addresses cardiovascular events in kidney transplant recipients. Additionally, we focus on clinical management of specific cardiovascular entities that are more prevalent among kidney transplant recipients (ie, pulmonary hypertension, valvular diseases, diastolic dysfunction) and the use of newer evolving drug classes for treatment of heart failure within this cohort of patients. We note that there are no consensus documents describing optimal diagnostic, monitoring, or management strategies to reduce cardiovascular events after kidney transplantation; however, we outline quality initiatives and research recommendations for the assessment and management of cardiovascular-specific risk factors that could improve outcomes.
Identifiants
pubmed: 34856598
doi: 10.1097/TP.0000000000003990
pii: 00007890-202206000-00013
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
1143-1158Commentaires et corrections
Type : ErratumIn
Informations de copyright
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
Déclaration de conflit d'intérêts
The authors declare no funding or conflicts of interest.
Références
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Heart disease facts. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/facts.htm . Accessed February 1, 2021.
Virani SS, Alonso A, Benjamin EJ, et al.; American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2020 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141:e139–e596.
Roth GA, Johnson C, Abajobir A, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of cardiovascular diseases for 10 causes, 1990 to 2015. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70:1–25.
Anavekar NS, McMurray JJ, Velazquez EJ, et al. Relation between renal dysfunction and cardiovascular outcomes after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1285–1295.
Arend SM, Mallat MJ, Westendorp RJ, et al. Patient survival after renal transplantation; more than 25 years follow-up. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1997;12:1672–1679.
Ojo AO, Hanson JA, Wolfe RA, et al. Long-term survival in renal transplant recipients with graft function. Kidney Int. 2000;57:307–313.
Burton H, Iyamu Perisanidou L, Steenkamp R, et al. Causes of renal allograft failure in the UK: trends in UK Renal Registry and National Health Service Blood and Transplant data from 2000 to 2013. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2019;34:355–364.
Sarnak MJ, Levey AS, Schoolwerth AC, et al.; American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention. Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation. 2003;108:2154–2169.
Pippias M, Kramer A, Noordzij M, et al. The European Renal Association-European Dialysis and Transplant Association Registry Annual Report 2014: a summary. Clin Kidney J. 2017;10:154–169.
Awan AA, Niu J, Pan JS, et al. Trends in the causes of death among kidney transplant recipients in the United States (1996–2014). Am J Nephrol. 2018;48:472–481.
Rigatto C, Parfrey P, Foley R, et al. Congestive heart failure in renal transplant recipients: risk factors, outcomes, and relationship with ischemic heart disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:1084–1090.
Lentine KL, Brennan DC, Schnitzler MA. Incidence and predictors of myocardial infarction after kidney transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:496–506.
Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, et al. Association of serum phosphorus and calcium x phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study. Am J Kidney Dis. 1998;31:607–617.
Dhingra R, Sullivan LM, Fox CS, et al. Relations of serum phosphorus and calcium levels to the incidence of cardiovascular disease in the community. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:879–885.
Sitara D, Razzaque MS, Hesse M, et al. Homozygous ablation of fibroblast growth factor-23 results in hyperphosphatemia and impaired skeletogenesis, and reverses hypophosphatemia in Phex-deficient mice. Matrix Biol. 2004;23:421–432.
Kuro-o M, Matsumura Y, Aizawa H, et al. Mutation of the mouse klotho gene leads to a syndrome resembling ageing. Nature. 1997;390:45–51.
Napoli C, Casamassimi A, Crudele V, et al. Kidney and heart interactions during cardiorenal syndrome: a molecular and clinical pathogenic framework. Future Cardiol. 2011;7:485–497.
Shirali AC, Bia MJ. Management of cardiovascular disease in renal transplant recipients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;3:491–504.
Aziz F, Clark D, Garg N, et al. Hypertension guidelines: how do they apply to kidney transplant recipients. Transplant Rev (Orlando). 2018;32:225–233.
Aziz F, Garg N, Parajuli S, et al. Lipid lowering in dialysis patients with cardiovascular disease who are awaiting kidney transplantation. Clin Transplant. 2019;33:e13452.
Dhingra R, Vasan RS. Age as a risk factor. Med Clin North Am. 2012;96:87–91.
Wilson PW, D’Agostino RB, Levy D, et al. Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation. 1998;97:1837–1847.
Lloyd-Jones DM, Nam BH, D’Agostino RB Sr, et al. Parental cardiovascular disease as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in middle-aged adults: a prospective study of parents and offspring. JAMA. 2004;291:2204–2211.
Weir MR, Burgess ED, Cooper JE, et al. Assessment and management of hypertension in transplant patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;26:1248–1260.
Ibekwe R. Modifiable risk factors of hypertension and socio-demographic profile in Oghara, Delta state; prevalence and correlates. Ann Med Health Sci Res. 2015;5:71–77.
Aziz F, Chaudhary K. The triad of sleep apnea, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease: a spectrum of common pathology. Cardiorenal Med. 2016;7:74–82.
Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Transplant Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2009;9(suppl 3):S1–S155.
Taler SJ, Agarwal R, Bakris GL, et al. KDOQI US commentary on the 2012 KDIGO clinical practice guideline for management of blood pressure in CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. 2013;62:201–213.
Baroletti SA, Gabardi S, Magee CC, et al. Calcium channel blockers as the treatment of choice for hypertension in renal transplant recipients: fact or fiction. Pharmacotherapy. 2003;23:788–801.
Hoorn EJ, Walsh SB, McCormick JA, et al. Pathogenesis of calcineurin inhibitor-induced hypertension. J Nephrol. 2012;25:269–275.
Aftab W, Varadarajan P, Rasool S, et al. Beta and angiotensin blockades are associated with improved 10-year survival in renal transplant recipients. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013;2:e000091.
Noris M, Remuzzi G. Thrombotic microangiopathy after kidney transplantation. Am J Transplant. 2010;10:1517–1523.
Barbour T, Johnson S, Cohney S, et al. Thrombotic microangiopathy and associated renal disorders. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2012;27:2673–2685.
Moulder JE, Cohen EP, Fish BL. Captopril and losartan for mitigation of renal injury caused by single-dose total-body irradiation. Radiat Res. 2011;175:29–36.
Jodele S, Laskin BL, Dandoy CE, et al. A new paradigm: diagnosis and management of HSCT-associated thrombotic microangiopathy as multi-system endothelial injury. Blood Rev. 2015;29:191–204.
Giral M, Foucher Y, Dufay A, et al. Pretransplant sensitization against angiotensin II type 1 receptor is a risk factor for acute rejection and graft loss. Am J Transplant. 2013;13:2567–2576.
Kelsch R, Everding AS, Kuwertz-Bröking E, et al. Accelerated kidney transplant rejection and hypertensive encephalopathy in a pediatric patient associated with antibodies against angiotensin type 1 receptor and HLA class II. Transplantation. 2011;92:e57–e59.
Jobert A, Rao N, Deayton S, et al. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor antibody precipitating acute vascular rejection in kidney transplantation. Nephrology (Carlton). 2015;20(suppl 1):10–12.
Kasiske B, Cosio FG, Beto J, et al.; National Kidney Foundation. Clinical practice guidelines for managing dyslipidemias in kidney transplant patients: a report from the Managing Dyslipidemias in Chronic Kidney Disease Work Group of the National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative. Am J Transplant. 2004;4(suppl 7):13–53.
Kasiske BL, Chakkera HA, Roel J. Explained and unexplained ischemic heart disease risk after renal transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2000;11:1735–1743.
Kasiske BL, Guijarro C, Massy ZA, et al. Cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1996;7:158–165.
Boots JM, Christiaans MH, van Hooff JP. Effect of immunosuppressive agents on long-term survival of renal transplant recipients: focus on the cardiovascular risk. Drugs. 2004;64:2047–2073.
Kraemer FB, Takeda D, Natu V, et al. Insulin regulates lipoprotein lipase activity in rat adipose cells via wortmannin- and rapamycin-sensitive pathways. Metabolism. 1998;47:555–559.
Celik S, Doesch A, Erbel C, et al. Beneficial effect of omega-3 fatty acids on sirolimus- or everolimus-induced hypertriglyceridemia in heart transplant recipients. Transplantation. 2008;86:245–250.
Brattström C, Wilczek H, Tydén G, et al. Hyperlipidemia in renal transplant recipients treated with sirolimus (rapamycin). Transplantation. 1998;65:1272–1274.
Kido K, Evans RA, Gopinath A, et al. Severe hypertriglyceridemia induced by sirolimus treated with medical management without plasmapheresis: a case report. J Pharm Pract. 2018;31:104–106.
Kreis H, Cisterne JM, Land W, et al. Sirolimus in association with mycophenolate mofetil induction for the prevention of acute graft rejection in renal allograft recipients. Transplantation. 2000;69:1252–1260.
Groth CG, Bäckman L, Morales JM, et al. Sirolimus (rapamycin)-based therapy in human renal transplantation: similar efficacy and different toxicity compared with cyclosporine. Sirolimus European Renal Transplant Study Group. Transplantation. 1999;67:1036–1042.
Schena FP, Pascoe MD, Alberu J, et al.; Sirolimus CONVERT Trial Study Group. Conversion from calcineurin inhibitors to sirolimus maintenance therapy in renal allograft recipients: 24-month efficacy and safety results from the CONVERT trial. Transplantation. 2009;87:233–242.
Firpi RJ, Tran TT, Flores P, et al. Sirolimus-induced hyperlipidaemia in liver transplant recipients is not dose-dependent. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19:1033–1039.
Fernandez-Bussy S, Akindipe O, Baz M, et al. Sirolimus-induced severe hypertriglyceridemia in a lung transplant recipient. Transplantation. 2010;89:481–482.
Wanner C, Tonelli M; Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Lipid Guideline Development Work Group Members. KDIGO Clinical Practice Guideline for Lipid Management in CKD: summary of recommendation statements and clinical approach to the patient. Kidney Int. 2014;85:1303–1309.
Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH, et al.; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:2889–2934.
Chapter 3: assessment of lipid status in children with CKD. Kidney Int Suppl (2011). 2013;3:280–281.
Wiesbauer F, Heinze G, Mitterbauer C, et al. Statin use is associated with prolonged survival of renal transplant recipients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;19:2211–2218.
Holdaas H, Fellström B, Jardine AG, et al.; Assessment of LEscol in Renal Transplantation (ALERT) Study Investigators. Effect of fluvastatin on cardiac outcomes in renal transplant recipients: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;361:2024–2031.
Palmer SC, Navaneethan SD, Craig JC, et al. HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for kidney transplant recipients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014:CD005019.
Wiggins BS, Saseen JJ, Page RL 2nd, et al.; American Heart Association Clinical Pharmacology Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Hypertension; Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research; and Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology. Recommendations for management of clinically significant drug-drug interactions with statins and select agents used in patients with cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;134:e468–e495.
Sabatine MS, Giugliano RP, Keech AC, et al.; FOURIER Steering Committee and Investigators. Evolocumab and clinical outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:1713–1722.
Schwartz GG, Steg PG, Szarek M, et al.; ODYSSEY OUTCOMES Committees and Investigators. Alirocumab and cardiovascular outcomes after acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:2097–2107.
Warden BA, Fazio S, Shapiro MD. The PCSK9 revolution: current status, controversies, and future directions. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2020;30:179–185.
Kramer A, Pippias M, Noordzij M, et al. The European Renal Association-European Dialysis and Transplant Association (ERA-EDTA) Registry Annual Report 2015: a summary. Clin Kidney J. 2018;11:108–122.
Aziz F, Dhingra R, Anders M, et al. Non-obstructive coronary angiogram findings prior to kidney transplantation do not predict post-transplant cardiac events. Clin Nephrol. 2020;94:273–280.
Davidson J, Wilkinson A, Dantal J, et al. New-onset diabetes after transplantation: 2003 International consensus guidelines. Proceedings of an international expert panel meeting. Barcelona, Spain, 19 February 2003. Transplantation. 2003;75(suppl 10):SS3–SS24.
Pham PT, Pham PM, Pham SV, et al. New onset diabetes after transplantation (NODAT): an overview. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2011;4:175–186.
Wauters RP, Cosio FG, Suarez Fernandez ML, et al. Cardiovascular consequences of new-onset hyperglycemia after kidney transplantation. Transplantation. 2012;94:377–382.
Cosio FG, Kudva Y, van der Velde M, et al. New onset hyperglycemia and diabetes are associated with increased cardiovascular risk after kidney transplantation. Kidney Int. 2005;67:2415–2421.
Vivek V, Bhandari S. Prevalence of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors in long-term renal transplant patients. Int J Nephrol Renovasc Dis. 2010;3:175–182.
Ghisdal L, Van Laecke S, Abramowicz MJ, et al. New-onset diabetes after renal transplantation: risk assessment and management. Diabetes Care. 2012;35:181–188.
Shabir S, Jham S, Harper L, et al. Validity of glycated haemoglobin to diagnose new onset diabetes after transplantation. Transpl Int. 2013;26:315–321.
Sharif A, Hecking M, de Vries AP, et al. Proceedings from an international consensus meeting on posttransplantation diabetes mellitus: recommendations and future directions. Am J Transplant. 2014;14:1992–2000.
Galindo RJ, Sharfuddin A, Miller BW. Kidney transplantation in adults: posttransplantation diabetes mellitus. UpToDate. 2021. Available at https://www.uptodate.com/contents/kidney-transplantation-in-adults-posttransplantation-diabetes-mellitus?search=post-transplant%20diabetes&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1~150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1 . Accessed September 1, 2021.
Fung K, Cheshire C, Cooper JA, et al. Validation of cardiovascular magnetic resonance-derived equation for predicted left ventricular mass using the UK Biobank imaging cohort: tool for donor-recipient size matching. Circ Heart Fail. 2019;12:e006362.
Akhtar N. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and Invokana: an FDA approved drug. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2013;9:478–490.
Gallo LA, Wright EM, Vallon V. Probing SGLT2 as a therapeutic target for diabetes: basic physiology and consequences. Diab Vasc Dis Res. 2015;12:78–89.
Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, et al.; EMPA-REG OUTCOME Investigators. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2117–2128.
Wanner C, Inzucchi SE, Lachin JM, et al.; EMPA-REG OUTCOME Investigators. Empagliflozin and progression of kidney disease in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:323–334.
Skrtić M, Yang GK, Perkins BA, et al. Characterisation of glomerular haemodynamic responses to SGLT2 inhibition in patients with type 1 diabetes and renal hyperfiltration. Diabetologia. 2014;57:2599–2602.
Cherney DZ, Perkins BA, Soleymanlou N, et al. Renal hemodynamic effect of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibition in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 2014;129:587–597.
Halden TAS, Kvitne KE, Midtvedt K, et al. Efficacy and safety of empagliflozin in renal transplant recipients with posttransplant diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2019;42:1067–1074.
Mahling M, Schork A, Nadalin S, et al. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibition in kidney transplant recipients with diabetes mellitus. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2019;44:984–992.
AlKindi F, Al-Omary HL, Hussain Q, et al. Outcomes of SGLT2 inhibitors use in diabetic renal transplant patients. Transplant Proc. 2020;52:175–178.
Nassif ME, Qintar M, Windsor SL, et al. Empagliflozin effects on pulmonary artery pressure in patients with heart failure: results from the EMBRACE-HF trial. Circulation. 2021;143:1673–1686.
Mullens W, Martens P, Forouzan O, et al. Effects of dapagliflozin on congestion assessed by remote pulmonary artery pressure monitoring. ESC Heart Fail. 2020;7:2071–2073.
Schwaiger E, Burghart L, Signorini L, et al. Empagliflozin in posttransplantation diabetes mellitus: a prospective, interventional pilot study on glucose metabolism, fluid volume, and patient safety. Am J Transplant. 2019;19:907–919.
Zaccardi F, Webb DR, Htike ZZ, et al. Efficacy and safety of sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and network meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2016;18:783–794.
Shah M, Virani Z, Rajput P, et al. Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin in kidney transplant patients. Indian J Nephrol. 2019;29:278–281.
Rajasekeran H, Kim SJ, Cardella CJ, et al. Use of canagliflozin in kidney transplant recipients for the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a case series. Diabetes Care. 2017;40:e75–e76.
Kukla A, Hill J, Merzkani M, et al. The use of GLP1R agonists for the treatment of type 2 diabetes in kidney transplant recipients. Transplant Direct. 2020;6:e524.
Gerstein HC, Sattar N, Rosenstock J, et al.; AMPLITUDE-O Trial Investigators. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with efpeglenatide in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:896–907.
Shah M, Vella A. Effects of GLP-1 on appetite and weight. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2014;15:181–187.
Thangavelu T, Lyden E, Shivaswamy V. A Retrospective study of glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists for the management of diabetes after transplantation. Diabetes Ther. 2020;11:987–994.
Kaballo MA, Canney M, O’Kelly P, et al. A comparative analysis of survival of patients on dialysis and after kidney transplantation. Clin Kidney J. 2018;11:389–393.
Hart A, Smith JM, Skeans MA, et al. OPTN/SRTR 2018 annual data report: kidney. Am J Transplant. 2020;20(suppl s1):20–130.
Morales JM, Domínguez-Gil B. Impact of tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil combination on cardiovascular risk profile after kidney transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17(suppl 12):S296–S303.
Gardiner SM, March JE, Kemp PA, et al. Regional haemodynamic effects of cyclosporine A, tacrolimus and sirolimus in conscious rats. Br J Pharmacol. 2004;141:634–643.
Roullet JB, Xue H, McCarron DA, et al. Vascular mechanisms of cyclosporin-induced hypertension in the rat. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:2244–2250.
Hoorn EJ, Walsh SB, McCormick JA, et al. The calcineurin inhibitor tacrolimus activates the renal sodium chloride cotransporter to cause hypertension. Nat Med. 2011;17:1304–1309.
Perico N, Ruggenenti P, Gaspari F, et al. Daily renal hypoperfusion induced by cyclosporine in patients with renal transplantation. Transplantation. 1992;54:56–60.
Hoorn EJ, Walsh SB, Unwin RJ, et al. Hypertension after kidney transplantation: calcineurin inhibitors increase salt-sensitivity. J Hypertens. 2012;30:832–833.
Princen HM, Meijer P, Wolthers BG, et al. Cyclosporin A blocks bile acid synthesis in cultured hepatocytes by specific inhibition of chenodeoxycholic acid synthesis. Biochem J. 1991;275(Pt 2):501–505.
Krämer BK, Del Castillo D, Margreiter R, et al.; European Tacrolimus versus Ciclosporin Microemulsion Renal Transplantation Study Group. Efficacy and safety of tacrolimus compared with ciclosporin A in renal transplantation: three-year observational results. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23:2386–2392.
Margreiter R; European Tacrolimus vs Ciclosporin Microemulsion Renal Transplantation Study Group. Efficacy and safety of tacrolimus compared with ciclosporin microemulsion in renal transplantation: a randomised multicentre study. Lancet. 2002;359:741–746.
Webster AC, Woodroffe RC, Taylor RS, et al. Tacrolimus versus ciclosporin as primary immunosuppression for kidney transplant recipients: meta-analysis and meta-regression of randomised trial data. BMJ. 2005;331:810.
Radu RG, Fujimoto S, Mukai E, et al. Tacrolimus suppresses glucose-induced insulin release from pancreatic islets by reducing glucokinase activity. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005;288:E365–E371.
Solhjoo M, Kumar SC. New Onset Diabetes After Transplant. StatPearls; 2020.
McLeod J, Wu S, Grazette L, et al. Tacrolimus-associated dilated cardiomyopathy in adult patient after orthotopic liver transplant. J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep. 2017;5:2324709617706087.
Noda K, Ukichi T, Furuya K, et al. Tacrolimus-induced hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a patient with dermatomyositis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2017;56:2037–2038.
Takeuchi T, Ino K, Dohi K, et al. Tacrolimus-induced left ventricular apical hypertrophy in a patient with post-allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Int J Cardiol. 2014;177:e22–e24.
Dehghani SM, Haghighat M, Imanieh MH, et al. Tacrolimus related hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in liver transplant recipients. Arch Iran Med. 2010;13:116–119.
Prashar R, Stewart D, Moza A. Tacrolimus as a rare cause of pericardial effusion in a renal transplant recipient. Heart Views. 2017;18:145–148.
Doobay R, Gambhir HS. Cardiac tamponade induced by tacrolimus toxicity. Am J Ther. 2018;25:e683–e684.
Costanzo MR, Dipchand A, Starling R, et al.; International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation Guidelines. The International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation Guidelines for the care of heart transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2010;29:914–956.
Larsen CP, Pearson TC, Adams AB, et al. Rational development of LEA29Y (belatacept), a high-affinity variant of CTLA4-Ig with potent immunosuppressive properties. Am J Transplant. 2005;5:443–453.
Vincenti F, Larsen C, Durrbach A, et al.; Belatacept Study Group. Costimulation blockade with belatacept in renal transplantation. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:770–781.
Vincenti F, Charpentier B, Vanrenterghem Y, et al. A phase III study of belatacept-based immunosuppression regimens versus cyclosporine in renal transplant recipients (BENEFIT study). Am J Transplant. 2010;10:535–546.
Vincenti F, Rostaing L, Grinyo J, et al. Belatacept and long-term outcomes in kidney transplantation. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:333–343.
Vanrenterghem Y, Bresnahan B, Campistol J, et al. Belatacept-based regimens are associated with improved cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors compared with cyclosporine in kidney transplant recipients (BENEFIT and BENEFIT-EXT studies). Transplantation. 2011;91:976–983.
Cohen JB, Eddinger KC, Forde KA, et al. Belatacept compared with tacrolimus for kidney transplantation: a propensity score matched cohort study. Transplantation. 2017;101:2582–2589.
Jorgenson MR, Descourouez JL, Brady BL, et al. Alternatives to immediate release tacrolimus in solid organ transplant recipients: when the gold standard is in short supply. Clin Transplant. 2020;34:e13903.
Ekmekçioğlu O, Turkan S, Yildiz Ş, et al. Comparison of tacrolimus with a cyclosporine microemulsion for immunosuppressive therapy in kidney transplantation. Turk J Urol. 2013;39:16–21.
Torres A, Hernández D, Moreso F, et al. Randomized controlled trial assessing the impact of tacrolimus versus cyclosporine on the incidence of posttransplant diabetes mellitus. Kidney Int Rep. 2018;3:1304–1315.
Guckelberger O, Bechstein WO, Neuhaus R, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in long-term follow-up after orthotopic liver transplantation. Clin Transplant. 1997;11:60–65.
Canzanello VJ, Schwartz L, Taler SJ, et al. Evolution of cardiovascular risk after liver transplantation: a comparison of cyclosporine A and tacrolimus (FK506). Liver Transpl Surg. 1997;3:1–9.
Miller LW. Cardiovascular toxicities of immunosuppressive agents. Am J Transplant. 2002;2:807–818.
Voora S, Adey DB. Management of kidney transplant recipients by general nephrologists: core curriculum 2019. Am J Kidney Dis. 2019;73:866–879.
Heisel O, Heisel R, Balshaw R, et al. New onset diabetes mellitus in patients receiving calcineurin inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Transplant. 2004;4:583–595.
Ekberg H, Tedesco-Silva H, Demirbas A, et al.; ELITE-Symphony Study. Reduced exposure to calcineurin inhibitors in renal transplantation. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2562–2575.
Jaber JJ, Feustel PJ, Elbahloul O, et al. Early steroid withdrawal therapy in renal transplant recipients: a steroid-free sirolimus and CellCept-based calcineurin inhibitor-minimization protocol. Clin Transplant. 2007;21:101–109.
Haririan A, Sillix DH, Morawski K, et al. Short-term experience with early steroid withdrawal in African-American renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2006;6:2396–2402.
Prashar R, Venkat KK. Immunosuppression minimization and avoidance protocols: when less is not more. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2016;23:295–300.
Kishikawa H, Nishimura K, Soda T, et al. Low-dose steroid maintenance for renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc. 2010;42:4030–4032.
Opelz G, Döhler B, Laux G; Collaborative Transplant Study. Long-term prospective study of steroid withdrawal in kidney and heart transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2005;5:720–728.
Woodle ES, First MR, Pirsch J, et al.; Astellas Corticosteroid Withdrawal Study Group. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial comparing early (7 day) corticosteroid cessation versus long-term, low-dose corticosteroid therapy. Ann Surg. 2008;248:564–577.
Woodle ES, Gill JS, Clark S, et al. Early corticosteroid cessation vs long-term corticosteroid therapy in kidney transplant recipients: long-term outcomes of a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Surg. 2021;156:307–314.
Pascual J, Galeano C, Royuela A, et al. A systematic review on steroid withdrawal between 3 and 6 months after kidney transplantation. Transplantation. 2010;90:343–349.
Pascual J, Zamora J, Galeano C, et al. Steroid avoidance or withdrawal for kidney transplant recipients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009:CD005632.
Serrano OK, Kandaswamy R, Gillingham K, et al. Rapid discontinuation of prednisone in kidney transplant recipients: 15-year outcomes from the University of Minnesota. Transplantation. 2017;101:2590–2598.
Popovtzer MM, Pinnggera W, Katz FH, et al. Variations in arterial blood pressure after kidney transplantation. Relation to renal function, plasma renin activity, and the dose of prednisone. Circulation. 1973;47:1297–1305.
Whitworth JA. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced hypertension. Kidney Int. 1987;31:1213–1224.
Jackson SH, Beevers DG, Myers K. Does long-term low-dose corticosteroid therapy cause hypertension? Clin Sci (Lond). 1981;61(suppl 7):381s–383s.
Matas AJ, Kandaswamy R, Gillingham KJ, et al. Prednisone-free maintenance immunosuppression—a 5-year experience. Am J Transplant. 2005;5:2473–2478.
Kumar MS, Xiao SG, Fyfe B, et al. Steroid avoidance in renal transplantation using basiliximab induction, cyclosporine-based immunosuppression and protocol biopsies. Clin Transplant. 2005;19:61–69.
Diekmann F, Campistol JM. Practical considerations for the use of mTOR inhibitors. Transplant Res. 2015;4(suppl 1):5.
Morrisett JD, Abdel-Fattah G, Hoogeveen R, et al. Effects of sirolimus on plasma lipids, lipoprotein levels, and fatty acid metabolism in renal transplant patients. J Lipid Res. 2002;43:1170–1180.
Klawitter J, Nashan B, Christians U. Everolimus and sirolimus in transplantation-related but different. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2015;14:1055–1070.
Kasiske BL, de Mattos A, Flechner SM, et al. Mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor dyslipidemia in kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2008;8:1384–1392.
Kaplan B, Qazi Y, Wellen JR. Strategies for the management of adverse events associated with mTOR inhibitors. Transplant Rev (Orlando). 2014;28:126–133.
Ducloux D, Courivaud C, Bamoulid J, et al. Polyclonal antithymocyte globulin and cardiovascular disease in kidney transplant recipients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;25:1349–1356.
Mizrahi M, Adar T, Orenbuch-Harroch E, et al. Non-ST elevation myocardial infraction after high dose intravenous immunoglobulin infusion. Case Rep Med. 2009;2009:861370.
Elkayam O, Paran D, Milo R, et al. Acute myocardial infarction associated with high dose intravenous immunoglobulin infusion for autoimmune disorders. A study of four cases. Ann Rheum Dis. 2000;59:77–80.
Savaşan S, Tuzcu V, Warrier I, et al. Cardiac rhythm abnormalities during intravenous immunoglobulin G infusion for treatment of thrombocytopenia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1997;19:254–257.
Tufekci S, Coban A, Bor M, et al. Cardiac rhythm abnormalities during intravenous immunoglobulin G (IVIG) infusion in two newborn infants: coincidence or association? Clin Case Rep. 2015;3:731–734.
Reinhart WH, Berchtold PE. Effect of high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin therapy on blood rheology. Lancet. 1992;339:662–664.
Hefer D, Jaloudi M. Thromboembolic events as an emerging adverse effect during high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in elderly patients: a case report and discussion of the relevant literature. Ann Hematol. 2004;83:661–665.
Dalakas MC. High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin and serum viscosity: risk of precipitating thromboembolic events. Neurology. 1994;44:223–226.
Vo AA, Cam V, Toyoda M, et al. Safety and adverse events profiles of intravenous gammaglobulin products used for immunomodulation: a single-center experience. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;1:844–852.
Tang M, Batty JA, Lin C, et al. Pulmonary hypertension, mortality, and cardiovascular disease in CKD and ESRD patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2018;72:75–83.
Reque J, Quiroga B, Ruiz C, et al. Pulmonary hypertension is an independent predictor of cardiovascular events and mortality in haemodialysis patients. Nephrology (Carlton). 2016;21:321–326.
Acarturk G, Albayrak R, Melek M, et al. The relationship between arteriovenous fistula blood flow rate and pulmonary artery pressure in hemodialysis patients. Int Urol Nephrol. 2008;40:509–513.
Selvaraj S, Shah SJ, Ommerborn MJ, et al. Pulmonary hypertension is associated with a higher risk of heart failure hospitalization and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease: the Jackson Heart Study. Circ Heart Fail. 2017;10:e003940.
Alhamad EH, Al-Ghonaim M, Alfaleh HF, et al. Pulmonary hypertension in end-stage renal disease and post renal transplantation patients. J Thorac Dis. 2014;6:606–616.
Reddy YN, Lunawat D, Abraham G, et al. Progressive pulmonary hypertension: another criterion for expeditious renal transplantation. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 2013;24:925–929.
Casas-Aparicio G, Castillo-Martínez L, Orea-Tejeda A, et al. The effect of successful kidney transplantation on ventricular dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension. Transplant Proc. 2010;42:3524–3528.
Yigla M, Nakhoul F, Sabag A, et al. Pulmonary hypertension in patients with end-stage renal disease. Chest. 2003;123:1577–1582.
Issa N, Krowka MJ, Griffin MD, et al. Pulmonary hypertension is associated with reduced patient survival after kidney transplantation. Transplantation. 2008;86:1384–1388.
Zlotnick DM, Axelrod DA, Chobanian MC, et al. Non-invasive detection of pulmonary hypertension prior to renal transplantation is a predictor of increased risk for early graft dysfunction. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010;25:3090–3096.
Stallworthy EJ, Pilmore HL, Webster MW, et al. Do echocardiographic parameters predict mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease? Transplantation. 2013;95:1225–1232.
Grupper A, Grupper A, Daly RC, et al. Renal allograft outcome after simultaneous heart and kidney transplantation. Am J Cardiol. 2017;120:494–499.
Glassock RJ, Pecoits-Filho R, Barberato SH. Left ventricular mass in chronic kidney disease and ESRD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;4(suppl 1):S79–S91.
Silberberg JS, Barre PE, Prichard SS, et al. Impact of left ventricular hypertrophy on survival in end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 1989;36:286–290.
Wu C, Evans I, Joseph R, et al. Comorbid conditions in kidney transplantation: association with graft and patient survival. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:3437–3444.
Faravardeh A, Eickhoff M, Jackson S, et al. Predictors of graft failure and death in elderly kidney transplant recipients. Transplantation. 2013;96:1089–1096.
Siedlecki A, Foushee M, Curtis JJ, et al. The impact of left ventricular systolic dysfunction on survival after renal transplantation. Transplantation. 2007;84:1610–1617.
Lentine KL, Rocca-Rey LA, Bacchi G, et al. Obesity and cardiac risk after kidney transplantation: experience at one center and comprehensive literature review. Transplantation. 2008;86:303–312.
Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J. 2016;37:2129–2200.
Lee DS, Gona P, Vasan RS, et al. Relation of disease pathogenesis and risk factors to heart failure with preserved or reduced ejection fraction: insights from the Framingham Heart Study of the national heart, lung, and blood institute. Circulation. 2009;119:3070–3077.
Hwang JH, Park JB, Kim YJ, et al. The prognostic significance of preoperative left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and left atrial enlargement on acute coronary syndrome in kidney transplantation. Oncotarget. 2017;8:71154–71163.
Kim EJ, Koo BN, Kim SY, et al. The impact of perioperative factors on changes in diastolic function after kidney transplantation: a retrospective analysis. Yonsei Med J. 2019;60:291–297.
Fiorina P, La Rocca E, Astorri E, et al. Reversal of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction after kidney-pancreas transplantation in type 1 diabetic uremic patients. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1804–1810.
Kim EJ, Chang S, Kim SY, et al. Predictive value of echocardiographic abnormalities and the impact of diastolic dysfunction on in-hospital major cardiovascular complications after living donor kidney transplantation. Int J Med Sci. 2016;13:620–628.
Fang JC. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: a kidney disorder? Circulation. 2016;134:435–437.
Lam CSP, Chandramouli C, Ahooja V, et al. SGLT-2 inhibitors in heart failure: current management, unmet needs, and therapeutic prospects. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8:e013389.
Zannad F, Ferreira JP, Pocock SJ, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: a meta-analysis of the EMPEROR-reduced and DAPA-HF trials. Lancet. 2020;396:819–829.
McMurray JJV, Solomon SD, Inzucchi SE, et al.; DAPA-HF Trial Committees and Investigators. Dapagliflozin in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:1995–2008.
Petrie MC, Verma S, Docherty KF, et al. Effect of dapagliflozin on worsening heart failure and cardiovascular death in patients with heart failure with and without diabetes. JAMA. 2020;323:1353–1368.
Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, et al.; EMPEROR-Preserved Trial Investigators. Empagliflozin in heart failure with a preserved ejection fraction. N Engl J Med. 2021;385:1451–1461.
Wali RK, Wang GS, Gottlieb SS, et al. Effect of kidney transplantation on left ventricular systolic dysfunction and congestive heart failure in patients with end-stage renal disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1051–1060.
Pickup LC, Law JP, Radhakrishnan A, et al. Changes in left ventricular structure and function associated with renal transplantation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ESC Heart Fail. 2021;8:2045–2057.
McMurray JJ, Packer M, Desai AS, et al.; PARADIGM-HF Committees Investigators. Baseline characteristics and treatment of patients in prospective comparison of ARNI with ACEI to determine impact on global mortality and morbidity in heart failure trial (PARADIGM-HF). Eur J Heart Fail. 2014;16:817–825.
Haynes R, Judge PK, Staplin N, et al. Effects of sacubitril/valsartan versus irbesartan in patients with chronic kidney disease. Circulation. 2018;138:1505–1514.
USRDS. 2018 USRDS Annual Data Report: Epidemiology of Kidney Disease in the United States. National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2018.
Abbott KC, Agodoa LY. Hospitalizations for valvular heart disease in chronic dialysis patients in the United States. Nephron. 2002;92:43–50.
Rangaswami J, Mathew RO, Parasuraman R, et al. Cardiovascular disease in the kidney transplant recipient: epidemiology, diagnosis and management strategies. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2019;34:760–773.
Abbott KC, Hshieh P, Cruess D, et al. Hospitalized valvular heart disease in patients on renal transplant waiting list: incidence, clinical correlates and outcomes. Clin Nephrol. 2003;59:79–87.
Sharma A, Gilbertson DT, Herzog CA. Survival of kidney transplantation patients in the United States after cardiac valve replacement. Circulation. 2010;121:2733–2739.
Fox H, Büttner S, Hemmann K, et al. Transcatheter aortic valve implantation improves outcome compared to open-heart surgery in kidney transplant recipients requiring aortic valve replacement. J Cardiol. 2013;61:423–427.
Wanner C, Herzog CA, Turakhia MP; Conference Steering Committee. Chronic kidney disease and arrhythmias: highlights from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference. Kidney Int. 2018;94:231–234.
Girgis I. Arrhythmias and risk assessment in patients with renal failure. Card Electrophysiol Rev. 2002;6:155–159.
Lentine KL, Schnitzler MA, Abbott KC, et al. Incidence, predictors, and associated outcomes of atrial fibrillation after kidney transplantation. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;1:288–296.
La Manna G, Boriani G, Capelli I, et al. Incidence and predictors of postoperative atrial fibrillation in kidney transplant recipients. Transplantation. 2013;96:981–986.
Abbott KC, Reynolds JC, Taylor AJ, et al. Hospitalized atrial fibrillation after renal transplantation in the United States. Am J Transplant. 2003;3:471–476.
Joglar JA, Wan EY, Chung MK, et al. Management of arrhythmias after heart transplant: current state and considerations for future research. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2021;14:e007954.
Aull-Watschinger S, Konstantin H, Demetriou D, et al. Pre-transplant predictors of cerebrovascular events after kidney transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23:1429–1435.
Findlay MD, Thomson PC, MacIsaac R, et al. Risk factors and outcome of stroke in renal transplant recipients. Clin Transplant. 2016;30:918–924.
Malyszko J, Lopatowska P, Mlodawska E, et al. Atrial fibrillation in kidney transplant recipients: is there a place for the novel drugs? Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2018;33:1304–1309.
Bixby AL, Shaikh SA, Naik AS, et al. Safety and efficacy of direct-acting oral anticoagulants versus warfarin in kidney transplant recipients: a retrospective single-center cohort study. Transpl Int. 2020;33:740–751.
Lichvar AB, Pierce DR, Salerno D, et al. Utilization of direct-acting oral anticoagulation in solid organ transplant patients: a national survey of institutional practices. Clin Transplant. 2020;34:e13853.
Di Lullo L, Rivera R, Barbera V, et al. Sudden cardiac death and chronic kidney disease: from pathophysiology to treatment strategies. Int J Cardiol. 2016;217:16–27.
West M, Sutherland DE, Matas AJ. Kidney transplant recipients who die with functioning grafts: serum creatinine level and cause of death. Transplantation. 1996;62:1029–1030.
Marcassi AP, Yasbek DC, Pestana JO, et al. Ventricular arrhythmia in incident kidney transplant recipients: prevalence and associated factors. Transpl Int. 2011;24:67–72.
Alkhouli M, Sandhu P, Boobes K, et al. Cardiac complications of arteriovenous fistulas in patients with end-stage renal disease. Nefrologia. 2015;35:234–245.
Raza F, Alkhouli M, Rogers F, et al. Case series of 5 patients with end-stage renal disease with reversible dyspnea, heart failure, and pulmonary hypertension related to arteriovenous dialysis access. Pulm Circ. 2015;5:398–406.
Liefeldt L, Budde K. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in renal transplant recipients and strategies to minimize risk. Transpl Int. 2010;23:1191–1204.
Manske CL, Thomas W, Wang Y, et al. Screening diabetic transplant candidates for coronary artery disease: identification of a low risk subgroup. Kidney Int. 1993;44:617–621.
Wang LW, Masson P, Turner RM, et al. Prognostic value of cardiac tests in potential kidney transplant recipients: a systematic review. Transplantation. 2015;99:731–745.
Lentine KL, Schnitzler MA, Brennan DC, et al. Cardiac evaluation before kidney transplantation: a practice patterns analysis in medicare-insured dialysis patients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;3:1115–1124.
Fihn SD, Gardin JM, Abrams J, et al. 2012 ACCF/AHA/ACP/AATS/PCNA/SCAI/STS guideline for the diagnosis and management of patients with stable ischemic heart disease: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, and the American College of Physicians, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, Preventive Cardiovascular Nurses Association, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:2564–2603.