Chronic pericardial effusion: current concepts and emerging trends.

Pericardial effusion (PEF) is a common and challenging pericardial syndrome with a variety of clinical manifestations ranging from asymptomatic, incidentally uncovered small PEFs, to life-threatening cardiac tamponade. This review focuses on the pathophysiology, epidemiology, aetiology, classification, clinical findings, diagnostic work-up, management, and outcome of PEFs. Particular emphasis has been given on the most recent evidence concerning the contribution of imaging for the detection, differential diagnosis, and evaluation of the haemodynamic impact of PEFs on the diastolic filling of the heart. Moreover, simplified algorithms for PEF triage and management have been included. The management of patients with PEFs is mainly based on four parameters, namely, haemodynamic impact on diastolic function, elevation of inflammatory markers, presence of a specific underlying condition known to be associated with PEF, and finally size and duration of the effusion. Novel data have contributed to change our view towards large, asymptomatic, 'idiopathic' PEFs and dictated a rather conservative approach in most cases. It is also stressed that there is a compelling need for additional research, which is essential for tailored treatments aiming at the improvement of quality of life and containment of health care costs.