Single-molecule footprinting identifies context-dependent regulation of enhancers by DNA methylation.

Enhancers are cis-regulatory elements that control the establishment of cell identities during development. In mammals, enhancer activation is tightly coupled with DNA demethylation. However, whether this epigenetic remodeling is necessary for enhancer activation is unknown. Here, we adapted single-molecule footprinting to measure chromatin accessibility and transcription factor binding as a function of the presence of methylation on the same DNA molecules. We leveraged natural epigenetic heterogeneity at active enhancers to test the impact of DNA methylation on their chromatin accessibility in multiple cell lineages. Although reduction of DNA methylation appears dispensable for the activity of most enhancers, we identify a class of cell-type-specific enhancers where DNA methylation antagonizes the binding of transcription factors. Genetic perturbations reveal that chromatin accessibility and transcription factor binding require active demethylation at these loci. Thus, in addition to safeguarding the genome from spurious activation, DNA methylation directly controls transcription factor occupancy at active enhancers.

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Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests.