Efficacy of activated carbon filtration and ozonation to remove persistent and mobile substances - A case study in two wastewater treatment plants.

Persistent and mobile (PM) substances are able to spread quickly in the water cycle and were thus identified as potentially problematic for the environment and water quality. If also toxic (PMT) or very persistent and very mobile (vPvM) their regulation under REACH as substances of very high concern is foreseen. Yet, knowledge on the effectiveness of advanced wastewater treatment in removing PM-substances from WWTP effluents is limited to few rather well-known chemicals. The occurrence and behavior of 111 suspected and known PM-substances was investigated in two wastewater treatment plants employing either powdered activated carbon (PAC, full-scale) or ozonation with subsequent sand/anthracite filtration (pilot-scale) and an additional granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration was investigated. 72 of the 111 PM-substances analyzed were detected at least once in the secondary effluent of either wastewater treatment plant, resulting in total concentrations of 104 μg/L and 40 μg/L, respectively. While PAC removed 32 % of PM-substances well, the total PM burden in the effluent was only reduced from 103 μg/L to 87 μg/L. Ozonation and the subsequent sand/anthracite filtration was able to reduce the PM burden in wastewater from 40 μg/L to 19 μg/L, showing a higher removal efficacy than PAC in this study. The additional GAC filtration further reduced the total PM-concentration to 13 μg/L. Among the investigated PM-chemicals detected were constituents of ionic liquids: The anion hexafluorophosphate was one of few chemicals that was detected in effluent concentrations >1 μg/L and could not be removed by the processes studied, showing that for some chemicals preventive actions may be required.

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Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.