A face-off of MRI research sequences by their need for de-facing.

It is now widely known that research brain MRI, CT, and PET images may potentially be re-identified using face recognition, and this potential can be reduced by applying face-deidentification ("de-facing") software. However, for research MRI sequences beyond T1-weighted (T1-w) and T2-FLAIR structural images, the potential for re-identification and quantitative effects of de-facing are both unknown, and the effects of de-facing T2-FLAIR are also unknown. In this work we examine these questions (where applicable) for T1-w, T2-w, T2*-w, T2-FLAIR, diffusion MRI (dMRI), functional MRI (fMRI), and arterial spin labelling (ASL) sequences. Among current-generation, vendor-product research-grade sequences, we found that 3D T1-w, T2-w, and T2-FLAIR were highly re-identifiable (96-98%). 2D T2-FLAIR and 3D multi-echo GRE (ME-GRE) were also moderately re-identifiable (44-45%), and our derived T2* from ME-GRE (comparable to a typical 2D T2*) matched at only 10%. Finally, diffusion, functional and ASL images were each minimally re-identifiable (0-8%). Applying de-facing with mri_reface version 0.3 reduced successful re-identification to ≤8%, while differential effects on popular quantitative pipelines for cortical volumes and thickness, white matter hyperintensities (WMH), and quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) measurements were all either comparable with or smaller than scan-rescan estimates. Consequently, high-quality de-facing software can greatly reduce the risk of re-identification for identifiable MRI sequences with only negligible effects on automated intracranial measurements. The current-generation echo-planar and spiral sequences (dMRI, fMRI, and ASL) each had minimal match rates, suggesting that they have a low risk of re-identification and can be shared without de-facing, but this conclusion should be re-evaluated if they are acquired without fat suppression, with a full-face scan coverage, or if newer developments reduce the current levels of artifacts and distortion around the face.

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Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Inc.

Déclaration de conflit d'intérêts

Declaration of Competing Interest • Dr. Schwarz receives research funding from the National Institutes of Health, related and unrelated to this study. • Dr. Kremers received grant funding from NIH for this study, and from NIH, DOD, AstraZeneca, Biogen and Roche unrelated to this study. • Dr. Arani receives research funding from the NIH, unrelated to this study. • Dr. Savvides reports no disclosures. • Dr. Reid reports no disclosures. • Dr. Gunter receives funding from the NIH. • Mr. Senjem owns or has owned stock in medical related companies, unrelated to the current work, within the past 36 months: Align Technology, Inc., Inovio Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Mesa Laboratories, Inc., Nvidia, Inc., Johnson and Johnson, LHC Group, Inc., Natus Medical Inc., Varex Imaging Corporation. • Dr. Cogswell reports no disclosures. • Dr. Vemuri receives funding from the NIH. • Dr. Kantarci consults for Biogen Inc., receives research support from Avid Radiopharmaceuticals and Eli Lilly, and receives funding from NIH and Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation. • Dr. Knopman served on a Data Safety Monitoring Board for the DIAN study. He served on a Data Safety monitoring Board for a tau therapeutic for Biogen but received no personal compensation. He is an investigator in clinical trials sponsored by Biogen, Lilly Pharmaceuticals and the University of Southern California. He serves as a consultant for Samus Therapeutics, Roche, Magellan Health and Alzeca Biosciences but receives no personal compensation. He receives research support from the NIH. • Dr. Petersen is a consultant for Roche, Inc., Merck, Inc., Biogen, Inc., Nestle, Inc., and Eisai, Inc., served on a DSMB for Genentech, Inc.; receives royalties from publishing Mild Cognitive Impairment (Oxford University Press, 2003) and UpToDate; and receives research support from the NIH (P30 AG062677 (PI) and U01-AG006786 (PI), R01-AG011378 (Co-I), U24 AG057437 (Co-PI), UF1 NS125417 (C0-PI) and U01–024904 (Co-I)). • Dr. Jack serves on an independent data monitoring board for Roche, has served as a speaker for Eisai, and consulted for Biogen, but he receives no personal compensation from any commercial entity. He receives research support from NIH and the Alexander Family Alzheimer's Disease Research Professorship of the Mayo Clinic.