Disease stratification in GCA and PMR: state of the art and future perspectives.
Journal
Nature reviews. Rheumatology
ISSN: 1759-4804
Titre abrégé: Nat Rev Rheumatol
Pays: United States
ID NLM: 101500080
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
Jul 2023
Jul 2023
Historique:
accepted:
02
05
2023
medline:
26
6
2023
pubmed:
13
6
2023
entrez:
12
6
2023
Statut:
ppublish
Résumé
Giant cell arteritis (GCA) and polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) are closely related conditions characterized by systemic inflammation, a predominant IL-6 signature, an excellent response to glucocorticoids, a tendency to a chronic and relapsing course, and older age of the affected population. This Review highlights the emerging view that these diseases should be approached as linked conditions, unified under the term GCA-PMR spectrum disease (GPSD). In addition, GCA and PMR should be seen as non-monolithic conditions, with different risks of developing acute ischaemic complications and chronic vascular and tissue damage, different responses to available therapies and disparate relapse rates. A comprehensive stratification strategy for GPSD, guided by clinical findings, imaging and laboratory data, facilitates appropriate therapy and cost-effective use of health-economic resources. Patients presenting with predominant cranial symptoms and vascular involvement, who usually have a borderline elevation of inflammatory markers, are at an increased risk of sight loss in early disease but have fewer relapses in the long term, whereas the opposite is observed in patients with predominant large-vessel vasculitis. How the involvement of peripheral joint structures affects disease outcomes remains uncertain and understudied. In the future, all cases of new-onset GPSD should undergo early disease stratification, with their management adapted accordingly.
Identifiants
pubmed: 37308659
doi: 10.1038/s41584-023-00976-8
pii: 10.1038/s41584-023-00976-8
doi:
Substances chimiques
Glucocorticoids
0
Types de publication
Journal Article
Review
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
446-459Informations de copyright
© 2023. Springer Nature Limited.
Références
Buttgereit, F., Matteson, E. L. & Dejaco, C. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 324, 993–994 (2020).
doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.10155
van der Geest, K. S. M., Sandovici, M., Brouwer, E. & Mackie, S. L. Diagnostic accuracy of symptoms, physical signs, and laboratory tests for giant cell arteritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern. Med. 180, 1295–1304 (2020).
pubmed: 32804186
pmcid: 7432275
doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.3050
Salvarani, C., Cantini, F., Boiardi, L. & Hunder, G. G. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant-cell arteritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 261–271 (2002).
pubmed: 12140303
doi: 10.1056/NEJMra011913
Dejaco, C. et al. Treat-to-target recommendations in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann. Rheum. Dis. https://doi.org/10.1136/ard-2022-223429 (2023).
doi: 10.1136/ard-2022-223429
pubmed: 36828585
Matteson, E. L., Buttgereit, F., Dejaco, C. & Dasgupta, B. Glucocorticoids for management of polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Rheum. Dis. Clin. North. Am. 42, 75–90 (2016).
pubmed: 26611552
doi: 10.1016/j.rdc.2015.08.009
Hellmich, B. et al. 2018 Update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of large vessel vasculitis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 79, 19–30 (2020).
pubmed: 31270110
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2019-215672
Dejaco, C. et al. 2015 recommendations for the management of polymyalgia rheumatica: a European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology collaborative initiative. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 74, 1799–1807 (2015).
pubmed: 26359488
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-207492
Bond, M., Tomelleri, A., Buttgereit, F., Matteson, E. L. & Dejaco, C. Looking ahead: giant-cell arteritis in 10 years time. Ther. Adv. Musculoskelet. Dis. 14, 1759720X221096366 (2022).
pubmed: 35634351
pmcid: 9136445
doi: 10.1177/1759720X221096366
Sebastian, A., Tomelleri, A. & Dasgupta, B. Current and innovative therapeutic strategies for the treatment of giant cell arteritis. Expert Opin. Orphan Drugs 9, 161–173 (2021).
doi: 10.1080/21678707.2021.1932458
Watts, R. A., Hatemi, G., Burns, J. C. & Mohammad, A. J. Global epidemiology of vasculitis. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 18, 22–34 (2022).
pubmed: 34853411
doi: 10.1038/s41584-021-00718-8
Li, K. J., Semenov, D., Turk, M. & Pope, J. A meta-analysis of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis across time and space. Arthritis Res. Ther. 23, 82 (2021).
pubmed: 33706808
pmcid: 7948334
doi: 10.1186/s13075-021-02450-w
Mohammad, A. J., Nilsson, J. Å., Jacobsson, L. T. H., Merkel, P. A. & Turesson, C. Incidence and mortality rates of biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis in southern Sweden. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 74, 993–997 (2015).
pubmed: 24442881
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204652
Sharma A., Mohammad A., Turesson C. Incidence and prevalence of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: a systematic literature review. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 50, 1040–1048 (2020).
pubmed: 32911281
doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2020.07.005
Hunder, G. G. The early history of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: first descriptions to 1970. Mayo Clin. Proc. 81, 1071–1083 (2006).
pubmed: 16901030
doi: 10.4065/81.8.1071
Koster, M. J., Matteson, E. L. & Warrington, K. J. Large-vessel giant cell arteritis: diagnosis, monitoring and management. Rheumatology 57, ii32–ii42 (2018).
pubmed: 29982778
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kex424
Dasgupta, B. et al. 2012 provisional classification criteria for polymyalgia rheumatica: a European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology collaborative initiative. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 71, 484–492 (2012).
pubmed: 22388996
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2011-200329
Kermani, T. A. & Warrington, K. J. Polymyalgia rheumatica. Lancet 381, 63–72 (2013).
pubmed: 23051717
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60680-1
Koster, M. J. et al. Giant cell arteritis and its mimics: a comparison of three patient cohorts. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 50, 923–929 (2020).
pubmed: 32906026
doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2020.05.018
van der Geest, K. S. M. et al. Comparison and validation of FDG-PET/CT scores for polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology 61, 1072–1082 (2022).
pubmed: 34117743
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keab483
Henckaerts, L., Gheysens, O., Vanderschueren, S., Goffin, K. & Blockmans, D. Use of
pubmed: 29136209
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kex376
Schmidt, W. A. & Gromnica-Ihle, E. Incidence of temporal arteritis in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective study using colour Doppler ultrasonography of the temporal arteries. Rheumatology 41, 46–52 (2002).
pubmed: 11792879
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/41.1.46
Alba, M. A. et al. Relapses in patients with giant cell arteritis: prevalence, characteristics, and associated clinical findings in a longitudinally followed cohort of 106 patients. Medicine 93, 194–201 (2014).
pubmed: 25181312
pmcid: 4602452
doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000000033
Hemmig, A. K. et al. Subclinical giant cell arteritis in new onset polymyalgia rheumatica: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 55, 152017 (2022).
pubmed: 35537222
doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2022.152017
Carmona, F. D. et al. A large-scale genetic analysis reveals a strong contribution of the HLA Class II region to giant cell arteritis susceptibility. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 96, 565–580 (2015).
pubmed: 25817017
pmcid: 4385191
doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2015.02.009
Mackie, S. L. et al. Association of HLA-DRB1 amino acid residues with giant cell arteritis: genetic association study, meta-analysis and geo-epidemiological investigation. Arthritis Res. Ther. 17, 1–14 (2015).
doi: 10.1186/s13075-015-0692-4
Weyand, C. M., Hunder, N. N. H., Hicok, K. C., Hunder, G. G. & Goronzy, J. J. HLA-DRB1 alleles in polymyalgia rheumatica, giant cell arteritis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 37, 514–520 (1994).
pubmed: 8147928
doi: 10.1002/art.1780370411
Carmona, F. D., González-Gay, M. A. & Martín, J. Genetic component of giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology 53, 6–18 (2014).
pubmed: 23843109
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ket231
González-Gay, M. A., Amoli, M. M., Garcia-Porrua, C. & Ollier, W. E. R. Genetic markers of disease susceptibility and severity in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 33, 38–48 (2003).
pubmed: 12920695
doi: 10.1053/sarh.2002.50025
Ma-Krupa, W. et al. Activation of arterial wall dendritic cells and breakdown of self-tolerance in giant cell arteritis. J. Exp. Med. 199, 173–183 (2004).
pubmed: 14734523
pmcid: 2211768
doi: 10.1084/jem.20030850
Deng, J. et al. Toll-like receptors 4 and 5 induce distinct types of vasculitis. Circ. Res. 104, 488–495 (2009).
pubmed: 19150884
pmcid: 2731717
doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.108.185777
Pryshchep, O., Ma-Krupa, W., Younge, B. R., Goronzy, J. J. & Weyand, C. M. Vessel-specific Toll-like receptor profiles in human medium and large arteries. Circulation 118, 1276–1284 (2008).
pubmed: 18765390
pmcid: 2748975
doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.789172
Knab, K., Chambers, D. & Krönke, G. Synovial macrophage and fibroblast heterogeneity in joint homeostasis and inflammation. Front. Med. 9, 930 (2022).
doi: 10.3389/fmed.2022.862161
Akbar, M. et al. Single cell and spatial transcriptomics in human tendon disease indicate dysregulated immune homeostasis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 80, 1494–1497 (2021).
pubmed: 34001518
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-220256
Mackie, S. L., Owen, C. E., Buchanan, R. R. C. & McGonagle, D. A shared basis for overlapping immunopathologies in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Lancet Rheumatol. 3, e826–e829 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/S2665-9913(21)00361-1
van Sleen, Y. et al. Leukocyte dynamics reveal a persistent myeloid dominance in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Front. Immunol. 10, 1981 (2019).
pubmed: 31507597
pmcid: 6714037
doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01981
Samson, M. et al. Th1 and Th17 lymphocytes expressing CD161 are implicated in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica pathogenesis. Arthritis Rheum. 64, 3788–3798 (2012).
pubmed: 22833233
doi: 10.1002/art.34647
Samson, M. et al. Involvement and prognosis value of CD8
pubmed: 27236507
doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2016.05.008
Reitsema, R. D. et al. Contribution of pathogenic T helper 1 and 17 cells to bursitis and tenosynovitis in polymyalgia rheumatica. Front. Immunol. 13, 1–11 (2022).
doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.943574
Terrier, B. et al. Interleukin-21 modulates Th1 and Th17 responses in giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. 64, 2001–2011 (2012).
pubmed: 22147555
doi: 10.1002/art.34327
Deng, J., Younge, B. R., Olshen, R. A., Goronzy, J. J. & Weyand, C. M. Th17 and Th1 T-cell responses in giant cell arteritis. Circulation 121, 906–915 (2010).
pubmed: 20142449
pmcid: 2837465
doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.872903
Van der Geest, K. S. M. et al. Serum markers associated with disease activity in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology 54, 1397–1402 (2015).
pubmed: 25724206
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keu526
Dasgupta, B. & Panayi, G. S. Interleukin-6 in serum of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology 29, 456–458 (1990).
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/29.6.456
Stone, J. H. et al. Trial of tocilizumab in giant-cell arteritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 377, 317–328 (2017).
pubmed: 28745999
doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1613849
Bonelli, M. et al. Tocilizumab in patients with new onset polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR-SPARE): a phase 2/3 randomised controlled trial. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 81, 838–844 (2022).
pubmed: 35210264
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-221126
Devauchelle-Pensec, V. et al. Effect of tocilizumab on disease activity in patients with active polymyalgia rheumatica receiving glucocorticoid therapy: a randomized clinical trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 328, 1053–1062 (2022).
doi: 10.1001/jama.2022.15459
Jiemy, W. F. et al. Distinct macrophage phenotypes skewed by local granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) are associated with tissue destruction and intimal hyperplasia in giant cell arteritis. Clin. Transl. Immunol. 9, e1164 (2020).
doi: 10.1002/cti2.1164
van Sleen, Y. et al. A distinct macrophage subset mediating tissue destruction and neovascularization in giant cell arteritis: implication of the YKL-40/interleukin-13 receptor α2 axis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 73, 2327–2337 (2021).
pubmed: 34105308
pmcid: 9298326
doi: 10.1002/art.41887
Meliconi, R. et al. Leukocyte infiltration in synovial tissue from the shoulder of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Quantitative analysis and influence of corticosteroid treatment. Arthritis Rheum. 39, 1199–1207 (1996).
pubmed: 8670331
doi: 10.1002/art.1780390719
Jiemy, W. F. et al. Expression of interleukin-6 in synovial tissue of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 82, 440–442 (2022).
pubmed: 35961758
doi: 10.1136/ard-2022-222873
Corbera-Bellalta, M. et al. Blocking GM-CSF receptor α with mavrilimumab reduces infiltrating cells, pro-inflammatory markers and neoangiogenesis in ex vivo cultured arteries from patients with giant cell arteritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 81, 524–536 (2022).
pubmed: 35045965
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-220873
Jiemy, W. F. et al. Proinflammatory monocytes and macrophages in synovial fluid and bursal tissue of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica: potent producers of IL-6 and GM-CSF. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 81, 8–9 (2022).
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2022-eular.4396
Szekanecz, Z. et al. Autoinflammation and autoimmunity across rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 17, 585–595 (2021).
pubmed: 34341562
doi: 10.1038/s41584-021-00652-9
Maz, M. et al. 2021 American College of Rheumatology/Vasculitis Foundation Guideline for the Management of Giant Cell Arteritis and Takayasu Arteritis. Arthritis Care Res. 73, 1071–1087 (2021).
doi: 10.1002/acr.24632
Langford, C. A. et al. A randomized, double-blind trial of abatacept (CTLA-4Ig) for the treatment of giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 69, 837–845 (2017).
pubmed: 28133925
pmcid: 5378642
doi: 10.1002/art.40044
Cid, M. C. et al. Efficacy and safety of mavrilimumab in giant cell arteritis: a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 81, 653–661 (2022).
pubmed: 35264321
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2021-221865
Venhoff, N. et al. Efficacy and safety of secukinumab in patients with giant cell arteritis: study protocol for a randomized, parallel group, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase II trial. Trials 22, 543 (2021).
pubmed: 34404463
pmcid: 8369438
doi: 10.1186/s13063-021-05520-1
Hoffman, G. S. et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of adjuvant methotrexate treatment for giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. 46, 1309–1318 (2002).
pubmed: 12115238
doi: 10.1002/art.10262
Spiera, R. F. et al. A prospective, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of methotrexate in the treatment of giant cell arteritis (GCA). Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 19, 495–501 (2001).
pubmed: 11579707
Mahr, A. D. et al. Adjunctive methotrexate for treatment of giant cell arteritis: an individual patient data meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 56, 2789–2797 (2007).
pubmed: 17665429
doi: 10.1002/art.22754
Tomelleri, A. et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of leflunomide in large-vessel giant-cell arteritis: a single centre ten-year experience. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 28, e297–e300 (2022).
pubmed: 33616316
doi: 10.1097/RHU.0000000000001703
Hočevar, A., Ješe, R., Rotar, Ž. & Tomšič, M. Does leflunomide have a role in giant cell arteritis? An open-label study. Clin. Rheumatol. 38, 291–296 (2019).
pubmed: 30084049
doi: 10.1007/s10067-018-4232-x
Das, S. et al. Efficacy of leflunomide as a steroid-sparing agent in treatment of Indian giant cell arteritis patients: a 2-year follow-up study. Int. J. Rheum. Dis. 25, 650–658 (2022).
pubmed: 35348297
doi: 10.1111/1756-185X.14319
Coath, F. et al. Giant cell arteritis: new concepts, treatments and the unmet need that remains. Rheumatology 58, 1123–1125 (2019).
pubmed: 30423174
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/key326
Higashida-Konishi, M. et al. Giant cell arteritis successfully treated with subcutaneous tocilizumab monotherapy. Rheumatol. Int. 43, 545–549 (2023).
pubmed: 36152056
doi: 10.1007/s00296-022-05217-x
Saito, S. et al. Tocilizumab monotherapy for large vessel vasculitis: results of 104-week treatment of a prospective, single-centre, open study. Rheumatology 59, 1617–1621 (2020).
pubmed: 31665468
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kez511
Jogimahanti, A. V., Kini, A. T., Irwin, L. E. & Lee, A. G. The cost-effectiveness of tocilizumab (Actemra) therapy in giant cell arteritis. J. Neuroophthalmol. 41, 342–350 (2021).
pubmed: 34415267
doi: 10.1097/WNO.0000000000001220
Stone, J. H. et al. Long-term effect of tocilizumab in patients with giant cell arteritis: open-label extension phase of the giant cell arteritis actemra (GiACTA) trial. Lancet Rheumatol. 3, e328–e336 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/S2665-9913(21)00038-2
Tomelleri, A. et al. Effectiveness of a two-year tapered course of tocilizumab in patients with giant cell arteritis: a single-centre prospective study. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 59, 152174 (2023).
pubmed: 36774660
doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2023.152174
Tomelleri, A. et al. Disease stratification in giant cell arteritis to reduce relapses and prevent long-term vascular damage. Lancet Rheumatol. 3, e886–e895 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/S2665-9913(21)00277-0
Caporali, R. et al. Prednisone plus methotrexate for polymyalgia rheumatica: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 141, 493–500 (2004).
pubmed: 15466766
doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-141-7-200410050-00005
Van Der Veen, M. J., Dinant, H. J., Van Booma-Frankfort, C., Van Albada-Kuipers, G. A. & Bijlsma, J. W. J. Can methotrexate be used as a steroid sparing agent in the treatment of polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis? Ann. Rheum. Dis. 55, 218 (1996).
pubmed: 8733437
pmcid: 1010141
doi: 10.1136/ard.55.4.218
Nazarinia, A. M., Moghimi, J. & Toussi, J. Efficacy of methotrexate in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Koomesh 14, 265–270 (2013).
Ferraccioli, G., Salaffi, F., De Vita, S., Casatta, L. & Bartoli, E. Methotrexate in polymyalgia rheumatica: preliminary results of an open, randomized study. J. Rheumatol. 23, 624–628 (1996).
pubmed: 8730115
Adizie, T., Christidis, D., Dharmapaliah, C., Borg, F. & Dasgupta, B. Efficacy and tolerability of leflunomide in difficult-to-treat polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis: a case series. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 66, 906–909 (2012).
pubmed: 22897467
doi: 10.1111/j.1742-1241.2012.02981.x
Spiera, R. et al. Sarilumab in patients with relapsing polymyalgia rheumatica: a phase 3, multicenter, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled trial (SAPHYR) [abstract]. Arthritis Rheumatol. 74, 1676 (2022).
Marsman, D. E., den Broeder, N., van den Hoogen, F. H. J., den Broeder, A. A. & van der Maas, A. Efficacy of rituximab in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, proof-of-concept trial. Lancet Rheumatol. 3, e758–e766 (2021).
doi: 10.1016/S2665-9913(21)00245-9
Dejaco, C., Duftner, C., Buttgereit, F., Matteson, E. L. & Dasgupta, B. The spectrum of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: revisiting the concept of the disease. Rheumatology 56, 506–515 (2017).
pubmed: 27481272
Schmidt, W. A. Ultrasound in the diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology 57, ii22–ii31 (2018).
pubmed: 29982780
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kex461
Biousse, V. & Newman, N. J. Ischemic optic neuropathies. N. Engl. J. Med. 372, 2428–2436 (2015).
pubmed: 26083207
doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1413352
Salvarani, C. et al. Risk factors for visual loss in an Italian population-based cohort of patients with giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Care Res. 53, 293–297 (2005).
doi: 10.1002/art.21075
Cid, M. C. et al. Association between strong inflammatory response and low risk of developing visual loss and other cranial ischemic complications in giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. 41, 26–32 (1998).
pubmed: 9433866
doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199801)41:1<26::AID-ART4>3.0.CO;2-0
van der Geest, K. S. M. et al. Ultrasonographic Halo Score in giant cell arteritis: association with intimal hyperplasia and ischaemic sight loss. Rheumatology 60, 4361–4366 (2021).
pubmed: 33355340
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keaa806
Makkuni, D. et al. Is intimal hyperplasia a marker of neuro-ophthalmic complications of giant cell arteritis? Rheumatology 47, 488–490 (2008).
pubmed: 18285353
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ken012
Van Der Geest, K. S. M. M. et al. Novel ultrasonographic Halo Score for giant cell arteritis: assessment of diagnostic accuracy and association with ocular ischaemia. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 79, 393–399 (2019).
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2019-216343
Vodopivec, I. & Rizzo, J. F. Ophthalmic manifestations of giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology 57, ii63–ii72 (2018).
pubmed: 29986083
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kex428
Hayreh, S. S. Giant cell arteritis: its ophthalmic manifestations. Indian J. Ophthalmol. 69, 227 (2021).
pubmed: 33463564
pmcid: 7933845
doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1681_20
Patil, P. et al. Fast track pathway reduces sight loss in giant cell arteritis: results of a longitudinal observational cohort study. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 33, S-103–S-106 (2015).
Gonzalez-Gay, M. A. et al. Strokes at time of disease diagnosis in a series of 287 patients with biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis. Medicine 88, 227–235 (2009).
pubmed: 19593228
doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e3181af4518
De Boysson, H. et al. Giant cell arteritis-related stroke: a retrospective multicenter case-control study. J. Rheumatol. 44, 297–303 (2017).
pubmed: 28089985
doi: 10.3899/jrheum.161033
Kermani, T. A. & Dasgupta, B. Current and emerging therapies in large-vessel vasculitis. Rheumatology 57, 1513–1524 (2018).
pubmed: 29069518
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kex385
Hamrin, B., Jonsson, N. & Landberg, T. Involvement of large vessels in polymyalgia arteritica. Lancet 285, 1193–1196 (1965).
doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(65)92723-6
Espitia, O. et al. Comparison of idiopathic (isolated) aortitis and giant cell arteritis-related aortitis. A French retrospective multicenter study of 117 patients. Autoimmun. Rev. 15, 571–576 (2016).
pubmed: 26903476
doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2016.02.016
Almeida-Morais, L. et al. Acute upper limb ischemia, a rare presentation of giant cell arteritis. Rev. Port. Cardiol. 35, 237.e1–237.e4 (2016).
pubmed: 27006059
doi: 10.1016/j.repc.2015.09.028
Dejaco, C., Duftner, C., Dasgupta, B., Matteson, E. L. & Schirmer, M. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis: management of two diseases of the elderly. Aging Health 7, 633–645 (2011).
doi: 10.2217/ahe.11.50
Blockmans, D. et al. Repetitive
pubmed: 16463425
doi: 10.1002/art.21699
Muratore, F. et al. Large-vessel giant cell arteritis: a cohort study. Rheumatology 54, 463–470 (2015).
pubmed: 25193809
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keu329
Monti, S. et al. Systematic literature review informing the 2018 update of the EULAR recommendation for the management of large vessel vasculitis: focus on giant cell arteritis. RMD Open 5, e001003 (2019).
pubmed: 31673411
pmcid: 6803016
doi: 10.1136/rmdopen-2019-001003
Nesher, G., Nesher, R., Mates, M., Sonnenblick, M. & Breuer, G. S. Giant cell arteritis: intensity of the initial systemic inflammatory response and the course of the disease. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 26 (3 Supp 49), S30–S34 (2008).
pubmed: 18799050
Hutchings, A. et al. Clinical outcomes, quality of life, and diagnostic uncertainty in the first year of polymyalgia rheumatica. Arthritis Care Res. 57, 803–809 (2007).
doi: 10.1002/art.22777
Ramon, A. et al. The frequency of occult solid malignancy in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica-like symptoms. Ther. Adv. Musculoskelet. Dis. 13, 1759720X20984275 (2021).
pubmed: 33552239
pmcid: 7844447
doi: 10.1177/1759720X20984275
Lavado-Pérez, C. et al.
pubmed: 26159505
Prieto-Peña, D. et al. Predictors of positive
pubmed: 29903537
doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2018.05.007
Noval Menéndez, J., Serrano, M. T. C., Nuño Mateo, F. J. & Morís de la Tassa, J. Distal musculo-skeletal manifestations in rheumatic polymyalgia. Rev. Clin. Esp. 202, 385–387 (2002).
pubmed: 12139822
doi: 10.1016/S0014-2565(02)71086-2
Pease, C. T. et al. Polymyalgia rheumatica can be distinguished from late onset rheumatoid arthritis at baseline: results of a 5-yr prospective study. Rheumatology 48, 123–127 (2009).
pubmed: 18980958
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ken343
Cimmino, M. A., Parodi, M., Zampogna, G., Barbieri, F. & Garlaschi, G. Polymyalgia rheumatica is associated with extensor tendon tenosynovitis but not with synovitis of the hands: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Rheumatology 50, 494–499 (2011).
pubmed: 21071481
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keq367
Karmacharya, P. et al. RS3PE revisited: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 331 cases. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 34, 404–415 (2016).
pubmed: 27050250
Owen, C. E. et al. Fusion of positron emission tomography/computed tomography with magnetic resonance imaging reveals hamstring peritendonitis in polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology 57, 345–353 (2018).
pubmed: 29121248
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kex411
Cimmino, M. A. et al. High frequency of capsular knee involvement in polymyalgia rheumatica/giant cell arteritis patients studied by positron emission tomography. Rheumatology 52, 1865–1872 (2013).
pubmed: 23850896
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ket229
Salvarani, C. et al. Acute-phase reactants and the risk of relapse/recurrence in polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective followup study. Arthritis Care Res. 53, 33–38 (2005).
doi: 10.1002/art.20901
Kimura, M. et al. Clinical characteristics of patients with remitting seronegative symmetrical synovitis with pitting edema compared to patients with pure polymyalgia rheumatica. J. Rheumatol. 39, 148–153 (2012).
pubmed: 22174210
doi: 10.3899/jrheum.110558
Caporali, R. et al. Presenting features of polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) and rheumatoid arthritis with PMR-like onset: a prospective study. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 60, 1021–1024 (2001).
pubmed: 11602472
pmcid: 1753411
doi: 10.1136/ard.60.11.1021
Marzo-Ortega, H. et al. Evidence for a different anatomic basis for joint disease localization in polymyalgia rheumatica in comparison with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 56, 3496–3501 (2007).
pubmed: 17907197
doi: 10.1002/art.22942
Salvarani, C. et al. Distal musculoskeletal manifestations in polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective follow-up study. Arthritis Rheum. 41, 1221–1226 (1998).
pubmed: 9663479
doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199807)41:7<1221::AID-ART12>3.0.CO;2-W
Hernández-Rodríguez, J. et al. A strong initial systemic inflammatory response is associated with higher corticosteroid requirements and longer duration of therapy in patients with giant-cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. 47, 29–35 (2002).
pubmed: 11932875
doi: 10.1002/art1.10161
Burja, B. et al. Utility of serological biomarkers for giant cell arteritis in a large cohort of treatment-naïve patients. Clin. Rheumatol. 38, 317–329 (2019).
pubmed: 30143961
doi: 10.1007/s10067-018-4240-x
Hocevar, A. et al. Do early diagnosis and glucocorticoid treatment decrease the risk of permanent visual loss and early relapses in giant cell arteritis. Medicine 95, e3210 (2016).
pubmed: 27057850
pmcid: 4998766
doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000003210
Restuccia, G. et al. Long-term remission in biopsy proven giant cell arteritis: a retrospective cohort study. J. Autoimmun. 77, 39–44 (2017).
pubmed: 27742223
doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2016.10.002
Bellan, M. et al. Role of positron emission tomography in the assessment of disease burden and risk of relapse in patients affected by giant cell arteritis. Clin. Rheumatol. 39, 1277–1281 (2020).
pubmed: 31713732
doi: 10.1007/s10067-019-04808-7
Martinez-Lado, L. et al. Relapses and recurrences in giant cell arteritis: a population-based study of patients with biopsy-proven disease from Northwestern Spain. Medicine 90, 186–193 (2011).
pubmed: 21512412
doi: 10.1097/MD.0b013e31821c4fad
Prieto-González, S. et al. Serum osteopontin: a biomarker of disease activity and predictor of relapsing course in patients with giant cell arteritis. Potential clinical usefulness in tocilizumab-treated patients. RMD Open. 3, e000570 (2017).
pubmed: 29299342
pmcid: 5743901
doi: 10.1136/rmdopen-2017-000570
Van Sleen, Y. et al. Markers of angiogenesis and macrophage products for predicting disease course and monitoring vascular inflammation in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology 58, 1383–1392 (2019).
pubmed: 30805622
pmcid: 6649803
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kez034
Nadkarni, S. et al. Investigational analysis reveals a potential role for neutrophils in giant-cell arteritis disease progression. Circ. Res. 114, 242–248 (2014).
pubmed: 24158630
doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.114.301374
Espígol-Frigolé, G. et al. Increased IL-17A expression in temporal artery lesions is a predictor of sustained response to glucocorticoid treatment in patients with giant-cell arteritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 72, 1481–1487 (2013).
pubmed: 22993227
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-201836
Cid, M. C. et al. Association between increased CCL2 (MCP-1) expression in lesions and persistence of disease activity in giant-cell arteritis. Rheumatology 45, 1356–1363 (2006).
pubmed: 16621921
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kel128
Hernández-Rodríguez, J. et al. Tissue production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα and IL-6) correlates with the intensity of the systemic inflammatory response and with corticosteroid requirements in giant-cell arteritis. Rheumatology 43, 294–301 (2004).
pubmed: 14679293
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keh058
van der Geest, K. S. M. et al. What is the current evidence for disease subsets in giant cell arteritis? Arthritis Rheumatol. 70, 1366–1376 (2018).
pubmed: 29648680
pmcid: 6175064
doi: 10.1002/art.40520
Esen, I. et al. Plasma pyruvate kinase M2 as a marker of vascular inflammation in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology 61, 3060–3070 (2022).
pubmed: 34730794
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keab814
Muratore, F. et al. Aortic dilatation in patients with large vessel vasculitis: a longitudinal case control study using PET/CT. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 48, 1074–1082 (2019).
pubmed: 30424972
doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2018.10.003
Bilici Salman, R. et al. Diagnostic utility of serum biomarkers in large vessel vasculitis and their correlation with positron emission tomography. Mod. Rheumatol. 32, 938–945 (2022).
pubmed: 34918110
doi: 10.1093/mr/roab074
Rodriguez-Pla, A. et al. Evaluation of potential serum biomarkers of disease activity in diverse forms of vasculitis. J. Rheumatol. 47, 1001 (2020).
pubmed: 31474593
doi: 10.3899/jrheum.190093
Nishimoto, N. et al. Mechanisms and pathologic significances in increase in serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) and soluble IL-6 receptor after administration of an anti-IL-6 receptor antibody, tocilizumab, in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and Castleman disease. Blood 112, 3959–3964 (2008).
pubmed: 18784373
doi: 10.1182/blood-2008-05-155846
Berger, C. T., Rebholz-Chaves, B., Recher, M., Manigold, T. & Daikeler, T. Serial IL-6 measurements in patients with tocilizumab-treated large-vessel vasculitis detect infections and may predict early relapses. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 78, 1012–1014 (2019).
pubmed: 30670375
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2018-214704
Cantini, F. et al. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein in the evaluation of disease activity and severity in polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective follow-up study. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 30, 17–24 (2000).
pubmed: 10966209
doi: 10.1053/sarh.2000.8366
Myklebust, G. & Gran, J. T. Prednisolone maintenance dose in relation to starting dose in the treatment of polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis. A prospective two-year study in 273 patients. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 30, 260–267 (2001).
pubmed: 11727839
doi: 10.1080/030097401753180327
Van Sleen, Y. et al. High angiopoietin-2 levels associate with arterial inflammation and long-term glucocorticoid requirement in polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology 59, 176–184 (2020).
pubmed: 31292652
Owen, C. E. et al. Neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio predicts glucocorticoid resistance in polymyalgia rheumatica. Int. J. Rheum. Dis. 24, 56–62 (2021).
pubmed: 33043616
doi: 10.1111/1756-185X.14000
van Sleen, Y. et al. Angiopoietin-2/-1 ratios and MMP-3 levels as an early warning sign for the presence of giant cell arteritis in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Arthritis Res. Ther. 24, 65 (2022).
pubmed: 35255968
pmcid: 8900446
doi: 10.1186/s13075-022-02754-5
van der Geest, K. S. M. et al. Diagnostic value of
pubmed: 33372248
doi: 10.1007/s00259-020-05162-6
Dejaco, C. et al. EULAR recommendations for the use of imaging in large vessel vasculitis in clinical practice. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 77, 636–643 (2018).
pubmed: 29358285
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2017-212649
Sugihara, T. et al. Associated factors of poor treatment outcomes in patients with giant cell arteritis: clinical implication of large vessel lesions. Arthritis Res. Ther. 22, 1–12 (2020).
doi: 10.1186/s13075-020-02171-6
Blockmans, D. et al. Repetitive 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in isolated polymyalgia rheumatica: a prospective study in 35 patients. Rheumatology 46, 672–677 (2007).
pubmed: 17114803
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kel376
Czihal, M. et al. Impact of cranial and axillary/subclavian artery involvement by color duplex sonography on response to treatment in giant cell arteritis. J. Vasc. Surg. 61, 1285–1291 (2015).
pubmed: 25659455
doi: 10.1016/j.jvs.2014.12.045
De Boysson, H. et al.
pubmed: 27367985
pmcid: 4937899
doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000003851
de Boysson, H. et al. Different patterns and specific outcomes of large-vessel involvements in giant cell arteritis. J. Autoimmun. 103, 102283 (2019).
pubmed: 31130367
doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2019.05.011
de Boysson, H. et al. Large-vessel involvement and aortic dilation in giant-cell arteritis. A multicenter study of 549 patients. Autoimmun. Rev. 17, 391–398 (2018).
pubmed: 29427822
doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2017.11.029
Sammel, A. M. et al. Cranial and large vessel activity on positron emission tomography scan at diagnosis and 6 months in giant cell arteritis. Int. J. Rheum. Dis. 23, 582–588 (2020).
pubmed: 32100451
doi: 10.1111/1756-185X.13805
Grayson, P. C. et al.
pubmed: 29145713
pmcid: 5882488
doi: 10.1002/art.40379
Meller, J. et al. Early diagnosis and follow-up of aortitis with [
pubmed: 12677302
doi: 10.1007/s00259-003-1144-y
Sebastian, A. et al. Efficacy and safety of tocilizumab in giant cell arteritis: a single centre NHS experience using imaging (ultrasound and PET-CT) as a diagnostic and monitoring tool. RMD Open 6, e001417 (2020).
pubmed: 33161376
pmcid: 7856116
doi: 10.1136/rmdopen-2020-001417
Camellino, D., Duftner, C. & Dejaco, C. New insights into the role of imaging in polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology 60, 1016–1033 (2021).
pubmed: 33200216
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keaa646
Salvarani, C. et al. Cervical interspinous bursitis in active polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 67, 758–761 (2008).
pubmed: 18208867
doi: 10.1136/ard.2007.084723
Rehak, Z. et al. PET/CT imaging in polymyalgia rheumatica: praepubic
pubmed: 28265227
pmcid: 5330169
doi: 10.1515/raon-2017-0001
Laporte, J.-P. et al. Localized myofascial inflammation revealed by magnetic resonance imaging in recent-onset polymyalgia rheumatica and effect of tocilizumab therapy. J. Rheumatol. 46, 1619–1626 (2019).
pubmed: 30877202
doi: 10.3899/jrheum.180958
Huwart, A. et al. Ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging changes in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica treated by tocilizumab. Arthritis Res. Ther. 20, 11 (2018).
pubmed: 29370856
pmcid: 5785834
doi: 10.1186/s13075-017-1499-2
Miceli, M. C. et al. Baseline shoulder ultrasonography is not a predictive marker of response to glucocorticoids in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica: a 12-month follow-up study. J. Rheumatol. 44, 241–247 (2017).
pubmed: 27980012
doi: 10.3899/jrheum.160090
Ayano, M. et al. Shoulder ultrasound and serum lactate dehydrogenase predict inadequate response to glucocorticoid treatment in patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatol. Int. 40, 1101–1109 (2020).
pubmed: 32062696
doi: 10.1007/s00296-020-04512-9
Macchioni, P. L., Catanoso, M. G., Pipitone, N., Boiardi, L. & Salvarani, C. Longitudinal examination with shoulder ultrasound of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Rheumatology 48, 1566–1569 (2009).
pubmed: 19808693
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kep286
Nakamura, H. et al. Gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in shoulders contributes accurate diagnosis and predicting recurrence to patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 39, 84–90 (2021).
pubmed: 32242812
doi: 10.55563/clinexprheumatol/l0jndl
Mackie, S. L. et al. Whole-body MRI of patients with polymyalgia rheumatica identifies a distinct subset with complete patient-reported response to glucocorticoids. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 74, 2188–2192 (2015).
pubmed: 26376658
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-207395
Giraud, N., Prati, C., Wendling, D. & Verhoeven, F. Prognostic value of
doi: 10.1016/j.jbspin.2020.105093
van der Geest, K. S. M. et al. Positron emission tomography imaging in vasculitis. Cardiol. Clin. 41, 251–265 (2023).
pubmed: 37003681
doi: 10.1016/j.ccl.2023.01.012
Bley, T. A. et al. Comparison of duplex sonography and high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Arthritis Rheum. 58, 2574–2578 (2008).
pubmed: 18668559
doi: 10.1002/art.23699
Chrysidis, S., Lage-Hansen, P. R., Svendsen, N. & Diamantopoulos, A. P. The fast-track outpatient clinic significantly decreases hospitalisation rates among polymyalgia rheumatica patients. BMC Rheumatol. 5, 37 (2021).
pubmed: 34607614
pmcid: 8491370
doi: 10.1186/s41927-021-00210-6
Nguyen, J. T. et al. Economic and objective burden of caregiving on informal caregivers of patients with systemic vasculitis. Musculoskelet. Care 17, 282–287 (2019).
doi: 10.1002/msc.1394
De Smit, E., Palmer, A. J. & Hewitt, A. W. Projected worldwide disease burden from giant cell arteritis by 2050. J. Rheumatol. 42, 119–125 (2015).
pubmed: 25362658
doi: 10.3899/jrheum.140318
Diamantopoulos, A. P., Haugeberg, G., Lindland, A. & Myklebust, G. The fast-track ultrasound clinic for early diagnosis of giant cell arteritis significantly reduces permanent visual impairment: towards a more effective strategy to improve clinical outcome in giant cell arteritis? Rheumatology 55, 66–70 (2016).
pubmed: 26286743
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kev289
Sarnes, E. et al. Incidence and US costs of corticosteroid-associated adverse events: a systematic literature review. Clin. Ther. 33, 1413–1432 (2011).
pubmed: 21999885
doi: 10.1016/j.clinthera.2011.09.009
Robson, J. C. et al. The relative risk of aortic aneurysm in patients with giant cell arteritis compared with the general population of the UK. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 74, 129–135 (2015).
pubmed: 24095936
doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204113
Stone, W. M. & Fankhauser, G. T. Inflammatory aneurysms treated with EVAR. Semin. Vasc. Surg. 25, 227–231 (2012).
pubmed: 23206570
doi: 10.1053/j.semvascsurg.2012.09.008
Broder, M. S. et al. Corticosteroid-related adverse events in patients with giant cell arteritis: a claims-based analysis. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 46, 246–252 (2016).
pubmed: 27378247
doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2016.05.009
Petri, H., Nevitt, A., Sarsour, K., Napalkov, P. & Collinson, N. Incidence of giant cell arteritis and characteristics of patients: data-driven analysis of comorbidities. Arthritis Care Res. 67, 390–395 (2015).
doi: 10.1002/acr.22429
Manson, S. C., Brown, R. E., Cerulli, A. & Vidaurre, C. F. The cumulative burden of oral corticosteroid side effects and the economic implications of steroid use. Respir. Med. 103, 975–994 (2009).
pubmed: 19372037
doi: 10.1016/j.rmed.2009.01.003
Van Staa, T. P., Leufkens, H. G. M., Abenhaim, L., Zhang, B. & Cooper, C. Oral corticosteroids and fracture risk: relationship to daily and cumulative doses. Rheumatology 39, 1383–1389 (2000).
pubmed: 11136882
doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/39.12.1383
Kanis, J. A., Stevenson, M., McCloskey, E. V., Davis, S. & Lloyd-Jones, M. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: a systematic review and cost-utility analysis. Health Technol. Assess. 11, 1–231 (2007).
doi: 10.3310/hta11070
Sebastian, A. et al. Halo score (temporal artery, its branches and axillary artery) as a diagnostic, prognostic and disease monitoring tool for Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA). BMC Rheumatol. 4, 35 (2020).
pubmed: 32821876
pmcid: 7433165
doi: 10.1186/s41927-020-00136-5