Lipid peroxidation-derived modification and its effect on the activity of glutathione peroxidase 1.

Oxidative stress and the resulting lipid peroxidation are associated with various pathological states, including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. The end products of lipid peroxidation, such as 4-oxo-2(E)-nonenal (ONE), 4-hydroxy-2(E)-nonenal (HNE), and methylglyoxal (MG), exert several biological effects through modification of various cellular components, including DNA and proteins. Glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx1) is an intracellular antioxidant enzyme that uses glutathione (GSH) to reduce a variety of peroxides, thereby modulating cellular oxidative stress and redox-mediated responses. GPx1 contains nucleophilic amino acids at its active (one Sec) and GSH-binding (four Arg and one Lys) sites. We found that lipid peroxidation-derived reactive aldehydes (ONE, HNE, and MG) modified the GSH-binding site, resulting in the inhibition of GPx1 activity. Mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis identified the sites modified by each aldehyde (ONE, 14 sites; HNE, 7 sites; MG, 9 sites). The GSH-binding sites modified were as follows: ONE, Arg57, 103, 184, and 185; HNE, Lys91; MG, Arg103. Upon incubation of GPx1 with each aldehyde, ONE reduced GPx1 activity more significantly than did HNE or MG in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The addition of GSH to GPx1 3 h after incubation with ONE prevented further inhibition by trapping ONE as a ONE-GSH adduct. However, the activity of GPx1 was not restored to the initial level, indicating that ONE modified GPx1 irreversibly. This study suggests that oxidative damage to lipids, resulting in the formation of reactive aldehydes, can amplify cellular oxidative stress via direct inactivation of GPx1, which increases the production of intracellular peroxides.

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Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.