Cost and benefit of parafoveal information during reading acquisition as revealed by finger movement patterns.
Digital tracking
Parafoveal benefit
Parafoveal cost
Reading acquisition
Journal
Scientific reports
ISSN: 2045-2322
Titre abrégé: Sci Rep
Pays: England
ID NLM: 101563288
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
24 Oct 2024
24 Oct 2024
Historique:
received:
27
12
2023
accepted:
08
10
2024
medline:
25
10
2024
pubmed:
25
10
2024
entrez:
25
10
2024
Statut:
epublish
Résumé
Contrary to expert readers, children learning to read have limited ability to preprocess letters in parafoveal vision. Parafoveal letters induce crowding cost: the features of neighboring letters interfere with target letter identification. We longitudinally studied the weight of parafoveal cost and benefit in two group of children (N = 42), during their first school year (Group 1) and at the end of second school year (Groupe 2). Using a novel digit-tracking method, a blurred text was presented and rendered unblurred by touching the screen, allowing the user to discover a window of visible text as the finger moved along it. We compared two conditions: (1) a large window, where crowding was enhanced by the presence of parafoveal information; (2) a small window, where crowding was suppressed by blurred parafoveal information. Finger kinematics were simultaneously recorded. We found that at the beginning of first-grade, digital fixations - brief slowing or stopping of the finger on a specific point - are significantly longer in the large compared to the small window condition, as parafoveal crowding increases text processing difficulty. This effect diminishes and disappears at the end of second-grade as reading performance improves. In the large window condition, longer digital saccades - rapid movements of the finger changing position - appear by the end of first grade suggesting that parafoveal exposure become more beneficial than harmful when children acquire basic reading skills. Our results show that in beginning readers, crowding has a cognitive cost that interfere with the speed of the learning reading process. Our findings are relevant to the field of education by showing that visual crowding in first grade should not be underestimated.
Identifiants
pubmed: 39448714
doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-75706-5
pii: 10.1038/s41598-024-75706-5
doi:
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
25127Subventions
Organisme : Pulsalys
ID : D02399
Informations de copyright
© 2024. The Author(s).
Références
Rayner, K. The Perceptual Span and Peripheral cues in Reading. Cogn. Psychol. 7, 65–81 (1975).
doi: 10.1016/0010-0285(75)90005-5
Schotter, E. R., Angele, B. & Rayner, K. Parafoveal processing in reading. Atten. Percept. Psychophys. 74, 5–35 (2012).
pubmed: 22042596
doi: 10.3758/s13414-011-0219-2
Henderson, J. M. & Ferreira, F. Eye movement control during reading: fixation measures reflect foveal but not parafoveal processing difficulty. Can. J. Exp. Psychol. 47, 201–221 (1993).
pubmed: 8364530
doi: 10.1037/h0078814
White, S. J., Rayner, K. & Liversedge, S. P. The influence of parafoveal word length and contextual constraint on fixation durations and word skipping in reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 12, 466–471 (2005). (2005).
Choi, W., Lowder, M. W., Ferreira, F. & Henderson, J. M. Individual differences in the perceptual span during reading: evidence from the moving window technique. Atten. Percept. Psychophys. 77, 2463–2475 (2015).
pubmed: 26059082
doi: 10.3758/s13414-015-0942-1
Veldre, A. & Andrews, S. Parafoveal preview benefit is modulated by the precision of skilled readers’ lexical representations. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 41, 219–232 (2015).
pubmed: 25384238
doi: 10.1037/xhp0000017
Veldre, A. & Andrews, S. Lexical quality and eye movements: individual differences in the perceptual span of skilled adult readers. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. (Hove). 67, 703–727 (2014).
pubmed: 23972214
doi: 10.1080/17470218.2013.826258
Chace, K. H., Rayner, K. & Well, A. D. Eye movements and phonological parafoveal preview: effects of reading skill. Can. J. Exp. Psychol. 59, 209–217 (2005).
pubmed: 16248500
doi: 10.1037/h0087476
Sperlich, A., Schad, D. J. & Laubrock, J. When preview information starts to matter: development of the perceptual span in German beginning readers. J. Cogn. Psychol. 27, 511–530 (2015).
doi: 10.1080/20445911.2014.993990
Sperlich, A., Meixner, J. & Laubrock, J. Development of the perceptual span in reading: a longitudinal study. J. Exp. Child. Psychol. 146, 181–201 (2016).
pubmed: 26950508
doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.02.007
Norgett, Y. & Siderov, J. Foveal crowding differs in children and adults. J. Vis. 14, 1–10 (2014).
doi: 10.1167/14.12.23
Bondarko, V. M. & Semenov, L. A. Visual acuity and the crowding effect in 8- to 17-year-old schoolchildren. Hum. Physiol. 31, 532–538 (2005).
doi: 10.1007/s10747-005-0093-1
Bouma, H. Interaction effects in parafoveal letter recognition. Nature. 227, 520–521 (1970).
Whitney, D. & Levi, D. M. Visual crowding: a fundamental limit on conscious perception and object recognition. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 160–168 (2011).
pubmed: 21420894
pmcid: 3070834
doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.02.005
Manassi, M., Sayim, B. & Herzog, M. H. When crowding of crowding leads to uncrowding. J. Vis. 13, 1–10 (2013).
doi: 10.1167/13.13.10
Anderson, E. J., Dakin, S. C., Schwarzkopf, D. S., Rees, G. & Greenwood, J. A. The neural correlates of crowding-induced changes in appearance. Curr. Biol. 22, 1199–1206 (2012).
pubmed: 22658599
pmcid: 3396841
doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.04.063
Pelli, D. G. et al. Crowding and eccentricity determine reading rate. J. Vis. 7, 20–20 (2007).
doi: 10.1167/7.2.20
Legge, G. E., Mansfield, J. S. & Chung, S. T. L. Psychophysics of reading XX. Linking letter recognition to reading speed in central and peripheral vision. Vis. Res. 41, 725–743 (2001).
pubmed: 11248262
doi: 10.1016/S0042-6989(00)00295-9
Bertoni, S., Franceschini, S., Ronconi, L., Gori, S. & Facoetti, A. Is excessive visual crowding causally linked to developmental dyslexia? Neuropsychologia. 130, 107–117 (2019).
pubmed: 31077708
doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.04.018
Martelli, M., Di Filippo, G., Spinelli, D. & Zoccolotti, P. Crowding, reading, and developmental dyslexia. J. Vis. 9, 14–14 (2009).
doi: 10.1167/9.4.14
Bouma, H. & Legein, C. P. Foveal and parafoveal recognition of letters and words by dyslexics and by average readers. Neuropsychologia. 15, 69–80 (1977).
pubmed: 831155
doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(77)90116-6
Chakravarthi, R., Rubruck, J., Kipling, N. & Clarke, A. D. F. characterizing the in-out asymmetry in visual crowding. J. Vis. 21, 1–14 (2021).
doi: 10.1167/jov.21.11.10
Shechter, A. & Yashar, A. Mixture model investigation of the inner–outer asymmetry in visual crowding reveals a heavier weight towards the visual periphery. Scientific Reports 2021 11:1 11, 1–12 (2021).
Moll, K. & Jones, M. Naming fluency in dyslexic and nondyslexic readers: Differential effects of Visual Crowding in Foveal, Parafoveal, and Peripheral Vision. Q. J. Experimental Psychol. 66, 2085–2091 (2013).
doi: 10.1080/17470218.2013.840852
Blythe, H. I. Developmental changes in Eye Movements and Visual Information Encoding Associated with Learning to Read. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 23, 201–207 (2014).
doi: 10.1177/0963721414530145
Blythe, H. I. & Joseph, H. S. S. L. Children’s Eye Movements during Reading. Oxf. Handb. Eye Movements. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199539789.013.0036 (2012).
doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199539789.013.0036
Rayner, K. Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Q. J. Experimental Psychol. 62, 1457–1506 (2009).
doi: 10.1080/17470210902816461
Hawelka, S., Gagl, B. & Wimmer, H. A dual-route perspective on eye movements of dyslexic readers. Cognition 115, 367–379 (2010).
Hawelka, S. & Wimmer, H. Impaired visual processing of multi-element arrays is associated with increased number of eye movements in dyslexic reading. Vis. Res. 45, 855–863 (2005).
pubmed: 15644226
doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2004.10.007
Barton, J. J. S., Hanif, H. M., Eklinder Björnström, L. & Hills, C. The word-length effect in reading: a review. Cogn. Neuropsychol. 31, 378–412 (2014).
pubmed: 24665973
doi: 10.1080/02643294.2014.895314
Rayner, K. Visual attention in reading: Eye movements reflect cognitive processes. Mem. Cognit. 5, 443–448 (1977).
pubmed: 24203011
doi: 10.3758/BF03197383
Henderson, J. M. & Ferreira, F. Effects of foveal processing difficulty on the perceptual span in reading: implications for attention and eye movement control. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 16, 417–429 (1990).
pubmed: 2140401
doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.16.3.417
Bricolo, E., Salvi, C., Martelli, M., Arduino, L. S. & Daini, R. The effects of crowding on eye movement patterns in reading. Acta Psychol. (Amst). 160, 23–34 (2015).
pubmed: 26143298
doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.06.003
Rayner, K. & Bertera, J. H. Reading without a fovea. Sci. (1979). 206, 468–469 (1979).
Johnson, R. L. & Dunne, M. D. Parafoveal processing of transposed-letter words and nonwords: evidence against parafoveal lexical activation. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 38, 191–212 (2012).
pubmed: 22060141
doi: 10.1037/a0025983
Pollatsek, A., Lesch, M., Morris, R. K. & Rayner, K. Phonological codes are used in Integrating Information Across Saccades in Word Identification and Reading. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 18, 148–162 (1992).
pubmed: 1532185
doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.18.1.148
Miellet, S. & Sparrow, L. Phonological codes are assembled before word fixation: evidence from boundary paradigm in sentence reading. Brain Lang. 90, 299–310 (2004).
pubmed: 15172547
doi: 10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00442-5
Ashby, J., Treiman, R., Kessler, B. & Rayner, K. Vowel processing during silent reading: evidence from eye movements. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 32, 416–424 (2006).
pubmed: 16569156
doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.32.2.416
Inhoff, A. W. Parafoveal Processing of Words and Saccade Computation during Eye fixations in Reading. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 15, 544–555 (1989).
pubmed: 2527961
doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.15.3.544
Vitu, F., O’Regan, J. K. & Mittau, M. Optimal landing position in reading isolated words and continuous text. Percept. Psychophys. 47, 583–600 (1990).
pubmed: 2367179
doi: 10.3758/BF03203111
Juhasz, B. J., White, S. J., Liversedge, S. & Rayner, K. Eye movements and the use of parafoveal word length information in reading. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 34, 1560–1579 (2008).
pubmed: 19045993
pmcid: 2668122
doi: 10.1037/a0012319
O’Regan, J. K., Lévy-Schoen, A., Pynte, J. & Brugaillère, B. Convenient fixation location within isolated words of different length and structure. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 10, 250–257 (1984).
pubmed: 6232343
doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.10.2.250
Lio, G., Fadda, R., Doneddu, G., Duhamel, J. R. & Sirigu, A. Digit-tracking as a new tactile interface for visual perception analysis. Nat. Commun. 10, 1–13 (2019).
doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-13285-0
Duranovic, M., Senka, S. & Babic-Gavric, B. Influence of increased letter spacing and font type on the reading ability of dyslexic children. Ann. Dyslexia. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-018-0164-z (2018).
doi: 10.1007/s11881-018-0164-z
pubmed: 30094714
Wallis, S., Yang, Y. & Anderson, S. J. Word Mode: a crowding-free reading protocol for individuals with macular disease. Sci. Rep. 8, 1–10 (2018).
doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-19859-0
Zorzi, M. et al. Extra-large letter spacing improves reading in dyslexia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1205566109 (2012).
doi: 10.1073/pnas.1205566109
pubmed: 22665803
pmcid: 3497756
Nguyen, V. C. L., Lio, G., Perret, T., Gomez, A. & Sirigu, A. A digital interface to speed up learning to read in 1st-grade and to collect finger movement related to reading skills. https://psyarxiv.com/3nqhu/ doi: (2022). https://doi.org/10.31234/OSF.IO/3NQHU
Huckauf, A. & Nazir, T. A. How odgcrnwi becomes crowding: stimulus-specific learning reduces crowding. J. Vis. 7, 1–12 (2007).
doi: 10.1167/7.2.18
Kliegl, R., Hohenstein, S., Yan, M. & McDonald, S. A. How preview space/time translates into preview cost/benefit for fixation durations during reading. Q. J. Experimental Psychol. 66, 581–600 (2013).
doi: 10.1080/17470218.2012.658073
Hutzler, F., Schuster, S., Marx, C. & Hawelka, S. An investigation of parafoveal masks with the incremental boundary paradigm. PLoS One. 14, 1–26 (2019).
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203013
Marx, C., Hawelka, S., Schuster, S. & Hutzler, F. An incremental boundary study on parafoveal preprocessing in children reading aloud: parafoveal masks overestimate the preview benefit. J. Cogn. Psychol. 27, 549–561 (2015).
doi: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1008494
Vasilev, M. R., Slattery, T. J., Kirkby, J. A. & Angele, B. What are the costs of degraded parafoveal previews during silent reading? J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 44, 371–386 (2018).
pubmed: 28661179
doi: 10.1037/xlm0000433
Pelli, D. G., Palomares, M. & Majaj, N. J. Crowding is unlike ordinary masking: distinguishing feature integration from detection. J. Vis. 4, 1136–1169 (2004).
pubmed: 15669917
doi: 10.1167/4.12.12
Bellocchi, S., Massendari, D., Grainger, J. & Ducrot, S. Effects of inter-character spacing on saccade programming in beginning readers and dyslexics. Child Neuropsychol. 25, 482–506 (2018).
pubmed: 30102106
Harrison, W. J., Mattingley, J. B. & Remington, R. W. Eye movement targets are released from visual crowding. J. Neurosci. 33, 2927–2933 (2013).
pubmed: 23407951
pmcid: 6619226
doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4172-12.2013
Magezi, D. A. Linear mixed-effects models for within-participant psychology experiments: an introductory tutorial and free, graphical user interface (LMMgui). Front. Psychol. 6, 2 (2015).
pubmed: 25657634
pmcid: 4302710
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00002
Boisgontier, M. P. & Cheval, B. The anova to mixed model transition. Neurosci. Biobehav Rev. 68, 1004–1005 (2016).
pubmed: 27241200
doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.05.034
Pech-Georgel, C. BELO-Batterie d’évaluation de lecture et d’orthographie. (2006).
Lefavrais Alouette-R. Preprint at (2005).
Juton, A. & Lequette, C. Evaluation de la fluence en lecture, du CP au lycée. http://www.cognisciences.com/IMG/pdf/evaluation_de_la_fluence_en_lecture2017-2.pdf
Wechsler, D. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence | Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV). (2012).
Christ, S. E., Kester, L. E., Bodner, K. E. & Miles, J. H. Evidence for selective inhibitory impairment in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Neuropsychology. 25, 690–701 (2011).
pubmed: 21728431
doi: 10.1037/a0024256
Eriksen, B. A. & Eriksen, C. W. Effects of noise letters upon the identificaion of a target letter in nonsearch task. Percept. Psychophys. 16, 143–149 (1974).
doi: 10.3758/BF03203267
Wechsler, D. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children | Fourth Edition. (2003).
Jacquier-Roux, M., Valdois, S., Zorman, M., Lequette, C. & Pouget, G. Outil de DÉpistage des DYSlexies. 1–71 Preprint at (2005).
Bosse, M. L., Tainturier, M. J. & Valdois, S. Developmental dyslexia: the visual attention span deficit hypothesis. Cognition. 104, 198–230 (2007).
pubmed: 16859667
doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.009
Van Rossum, G. & Drake, F. L. Jr Python 3 Reference Manual. Preprint at (2009).
R Development Core Team. A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing vol. 2 (2018). https://www.R-project.org Preprint at.
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. M. & Walker, S. C. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J. Stat. Softw. 67, 1–48 (2015).
doi: 10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Schielzeth, H. et al. Robustness of linear mixed-effects models to violations of distributional assumptions. Methods Ecol. Evol. 11, 1141–1152 (2020).
doi: 10.1111/2041-210X.13434
Wickham, H. Ggplot2 (Springer International Publishing, 2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24277-4