The key role of major and trace elements in the formation of five common urinary stones.
Elemental composition
Principal component analysis
Trace element
Urinary stones
Journal
BMC urology
ISSN: 1471-2490
Titre abrégé: BMC Urol
Pays: England
ID NLM: 100968571
Informations de publication
Date de publication:
30 May 2024
30 May 2024
Historique:
received:
09
01
2024
accepted:
10
05
2024
medline:
31
5
2024
pubmed:
31
5
2024
entrez:
30
5
2024
Statut:
epublish
Résumé
Urolithiasis has emerged as a global affliction, recognized as one of the most excruciating medical issues. The elemental composition of stones provides crucial information, aiding in understanding the causes, mechanisms, and individual variations in stone formation. By understanding the interactions between elements in various types of stones and exploring the key role of elements in stone formation, insights are provided for the prevention and treatment of urinary stone disease. This study collected urinary stone samples from 80 patients in Beijing. The chemical compositions of urinary stones were identified using an infrared spectrometer. The concentrations of major and trace elements in the urinary stones were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. The data were processed using correlation analysis and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) methods. Urinary stones are categorized into five types: the calcium oxalate (CO) stone, carbonate apatite (CA) stone, uric acid (UA) stone, mixed CO and CA stone, and mixed CO and UA stone. Ca is the predominant element, with an average content ranging from 2.64 to 27.68% across the five stone groups. Based on geochemical analysis, the high-content elements follow this order: Ca > Mg > Na > K > Zn > Sr. Correlation analysis and PCA suggested significant variations in the interactions between elements for different types of urinary stones. Trace elements with charges and ionic structures similar to Ca may substitute for Ca during the process of stone formation, such as Sr and Pb affecting the Ca in most stone types except mixed stone types. Moreover, the Mg, Zn and Ba can substitute for Ca in the mixed stone types, showing element behavior dependents on the stone types. This study primarily reveals distinct elemental features associated with five types of urinary stones. Additionally, the analysis of these elements indicates that substitutions of trace elements with charges and ion structures similar to Ca (such as Sr and Pb) impact most stone types. This suggests a dependence of stone composition on elemental behavior. The findings of this study will enhance our ability to address the challenges posed by urinary stones to global health and improve the precision of interventions for individuals with different stone compositions.
Sections du résumé
BACKGROUND
BACKGROUND
Urolithiasis has emerged as a global affliction, recognized as one of the most excruciating medical issues. The elemental composition of stones provides crucial information, aiding in understanding the causes, mechanisms, and individual variations in stone formation. By understanding the interactions between elements in various types of stones and exploring the key role of elements in stone formation, insights are provided for the prevention and treatment of urinary stone disease.
METHODS
METHODS
This study collected urinary stone samples from 80 patients in Beijing. The chemical compositions of urinary stones were identified using an infrared spectrometer. The concentrations of major and trace elements in the urinary stones were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), respectively. The data were processed using correlation analysis and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) methods.
RESULTS
RESULTS
Urinary stones are categorized into five types: the calcium oxalate (CO) stone, carbonate apatite (CA) stone, uric acid (UA) stone, mixed CO and CA stone, and mixed CO and UA stone. Ca is the predominant element, with an average content ranging from 2.64 to 27.68% across the five stone groups. Based on geochemical analysis, the high-content elements follow this order: Ca > Mg > Na > K > Zn > Sr. Correlation analysis and PCA suggested significant variations in the interactions between elements for different types of urinary stones. Trace elements with charges and ionic structures similar to Ca may substitute for Ca during the process of stone formation, such as Sr and Pb affecting the Ca in most stone types except mixed stone types. Moreover, the Mg, Zn and Ba can substitute for Ca in the mixed stone types, showing element behavior dependents on the stone types.
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSIONS
This study primarily reveals distinct elemental features associated with five types of urinary stones. Additionally, the analysis of these elements indicates that substitutions of trace elements with charges and ion structures similar to Ca (such as Sr and Pb) impact most stone types. This suggests a dependence of stone composition on elemental behavior. The findings of this study will enhance our ability to address the challenges posed by urinary stones to global health and improve the precision of interventions for individuals with different stone compositions.
Identifiants
pubmed: 38816700
doi: 10.1186/s12894-024-01498-5
pii: 10.1186/s12894-024-01498-5
doi:
Substances chimiques
Trace Elements
0
Calcium Oxalate
2612HC57YE
Uric Acid
268B43MJ25
Types de publication
Journal Article
Langues
eng
Sous-ensembles de citation
IM
Pagination
114Subventions
Organisme : Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
ID : 2652023001
Organisme : National Natural Science Foundation of China
ID : No. 41661144029
Informations de copyright
© 2024. The Author(s).
Références
Abufaraj M, Xu T, Cao, C, Waldhoer T, Seitz C, D’andrea D, Siyam A, Tarawneh R, Fajkovic H, Schernhammer E, & Yang L. Prevalence and Trends in Kidney Stone Among Adults in the USA: Analyses of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2018 Data. Eur. Urol. Focus. 2021;7(6):1468–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euf.2020.08.011 .
Edvardsson VO, Indridason OS, Haraldsson G, Kjartansson O, Palsson R. Temporal trends in the incidence of kidney stone disease. Kidney Int. 2013;83(1):146–52. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2012.320 .
doi: 10.1038/ki.2012.320
pubmed: 22992468
Chandrajith R, Wijewardana G, Dissanayake CB, Abeygunasekara A. Biomineralogy of human urinary calculi (kidney stones) from some geographic regions of Sri Lanka.Environ. Geochem Health. 2006;28(4):393–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-006-9048-y .
doi: 10.1007/s10653-006-9048-y
Wang W, Fan J, Huang G, Li J, Zhu X, Tian Y, Su L. Prevalence of kidney stones in mainland China: a systematic review. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):41630. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep41630 .
doi: 10.1038/srep41630
pubmed: 28139722
pmcid: 5282506
López M. Hoppe. History, epidemiology and regional diversities of urolithiasis. Pediatr Nephrol. 2010;25(1):49–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-008-0960-5 .
doi: 10.1007/s00467-008-0960-5
pubmed: 21476230
pmcid: 2778769
Słojewski M. Major and trace elements in lithogenesis.Cent. Eur J Urol. 2011;64(2):58–61. https://doi.org/10.5173/ceju.2011.02.art1 .
doi: 10.5173/ceju.2011.02.art1
Zeng Q, He Y. Age-specific prevalence of kidney stones in Chinese urban inhabitants. Urolithiasis. 2013;41(1):91–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-012-0520-0 .
doi: 10.1007/s00240-012-0520-0
pubmed: 23532431
Zeng G, Mai Z, Xia S, Wang Z, Zhang K, Wang L, Long Y, Ma J, Li Y, Wan SP, Wu W, Liu Y, Cui Z, Zhao Z, Qin J, Zeng T, Liu Y, Duan X, Mai X, Yang Z, Kong Z, Zhang T, Cai C, Shao Y, Yue Z, Li S, Ding J, Tang S, Ye Z. Prevalence of kidney stones in China: an ultrasonography based cross-sectional study. BJU Int. 2017;120(1):109–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/bju.13828 .
doi: 10.1111/bju.13828
pubmed: 28236332
Li M-L, Song S-C, Yang F, Gao C, Zhou B, Wang Q. Risk assessment and prevention of urolithiasis in urban areas of Baoding. China Med. 2024;103(2). https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.00000000000035880 .
Ingvarsdottir SE, Indridason OS, Palsson R, Edvardsson VO. Stone recurrence among childhood kidney stone formers: results of a nationwide study. Iceland Urolithiasis. 2020;48(5):409–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-020-01179-6 .
doi: 10.1007/s00240-020-01179-6
pubmed: 32107578
Chewcharat A, Curhan G. Trends in the prevalence of kidney stones in the United States from 2007 to 2016. Urolithiasis. 2021;49(1):27–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-020-01210-w .
doi: 10.1007/s00240-020-01210-w
pubmed: 32870387
Qu R, Han G, Tian Y, Zhao Y. Calcium isotope ratio in kidney stones: preliminary exploration of mechanism from the geochemical perspective.Metallomics.2022; 14(12): p. mfac095. https://doi.org/10.1093/mtomcs/mfac095 .
Ramaswamy K, Killilea DW, Kapahi P, Kahn AJ, Chi T, Stoller ML. The elementome of calcium-based urinary stones and its role in urolithiasis. Nat Rev Urol. 2015;12(10):543–57. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2015.208 .
doi: 10.1038/nrurol.2015.208
pubmed: 26334088
pmcid: 4875766
Bellizzi V, DeNicola L, Minutolo R, Russo D, Cianciaruso B, Andreucci M, Conte G. and V. Andreucci. Effects of Water hardness on urinary risk factors for kidney stones in patients with idiopathic Nephrolithiasis.Nephron.1998; 81(Suppl. 1): p. 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1159/000046301 .
Kohri K, Kodama M, Ishikawa Y, Katayama Y, Takada M, Katoh Y, Kataoka K, Iguchi M, Kurita T. Magnesium-To-Calcium ratio in tap Water, and its relationship to Geological Features and the incidence of calcium-containing. Urinary Stones J Urol. 1989;142(5):1272–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(17)39054-7 .
doi: 10.1016/S0022-5347(17)39054-7
pubmed: 2810505
Aghajari S, Sabzalipour S, Nazarpour A. Rozbahani. Mineralogy, geochemistry, 13 C and 16O isotopic characteristics of urinary stones in Iran, a case study of Lorestan Province.Environ. Geochem Health. 2021;43(12):5157–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00986-z .
doi: 10.1007/s10653-021-00986-z
Tian Y, Han G, Qu R, Xiao C. Major and Trace Elements in human kidney stones: a preliminary investigation in Beijing, China. Miner. 2022;12(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/min12050512 .
Keshavarzi B, Yavarashayeri N, Irani D, Moore F, Zarasvandi A, Salari M. Trace elements in urinary stones: a preliminary investigation in Fars Province. Iran Environ Geochem Health. 2015;37(2):377–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-014-9654-z .
doi: 10.1007/s10653-014-9654-z
pubmed: 25433503
Silvera SAN, Rohan TE. Trace elements and cancer risk: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Cancer Causes Control. 2007;18(1):7–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-006-0057-z .
doi: 10.1007/s10552-006-0057-z
Muñoz JA, Valiente M. Effects of trace metals on the inhibition of calcium oxalate crystallization. Urol Res. 2005;33(4):267–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-005-0468-4 .
doi: 10.1007/s00240-005-0468-4
pubmed: 15937709
Singh VK, Rai PK. Kidney stone analysis techniques and the role of major and trace elements on their pathogenesis. Rev Biophys Rev. 2014;6(3):291–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12551-014-0144-4 .
doi: 10.1007/s12551-014-0144-4
pubmed: 28510032
Bazin D, Daudon M, Combes C, Rey C. Characterization and some physicochemical aspects of pathological microcalcifications. Chem Rev. 2012;112(10):5092–120. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr200068d .
doi: 10.1021/cr200068d
pubmed: 22809072
Evan AP. Physiopathology and etiology of stone formation in the kidney and the urinary tract. Pediatr Nephrol. 2010;25(5):831–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-009-1116-y .
doi: 10.1007/s00467-009-1116-y
pubmed: 19198886
Giannossi ML, Summa V, Mongelli G. Trace element investigations in urinary stones: a preliminary pilot case in Basilicata (Southern Italy).J. Trace Elem. Med Biol. 2013;27(2):91–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2012.09.004 .
doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2012.09.004
Schubert G. Stone Anal Urol Res. 2006;34(2):146–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-005-0028-y .
doi: 10.1007/s00240-005-0028-y
Espinosa-Ortiz EJ, Eisner BH, Lange D, Gerlach R. Current insights into the mechanisms and management of infection stones. Nat Rev Urol. 2019;16(1):35–53. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41585-018-0120-z .
doi: 10.1038/s41585-018-0120-z
pubmed: 30470787
Daudon M, Hennequin C, Lacour B, Le Moel G, Donsimoni R, Fellahi S, Paris M, Troupel S. Sex- and age-related composition of 10 617 calculi analyzed by infrared spectroscopy. Urol Res. 1995;23(5):319–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00300021 .
doi: 10.1007/BF00300021
pubmed: 8839389
Prywer J, Torzewska A. Biomineralization of struvite crystals by Proteus mirabilis from artificial urine and their mesoscopic structure.Cryst. Res Technol. 2010;45(12):1283–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/crat.201000344 .
doi: 10.1002/crat.201000344
Manzoor MAP, Singh B, Agrawal AK, Arun AB, Mujeeburahiman M, Rekha PD. Morphological and micro-tomographic study on evolution of struvite in synthetic urine infected with bacteria and investigation of its pathological biomineralization. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(8):pe0202306. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202306 .
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202306
Siener R, Rüdy J, Herwig H, Schmitz M-T, Schaefer RM, Lossin P. and A. Hesse. Mixed stones: urinary stone composition. Freq Distribution Gend age Urolithiasis 2024 52(1): p. 24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-023-01521-8 .
Manzoor MAP, Agrawal AK, Singh B, Mujeeburahiman M, Rekha P-D. Morphological characteristics and microstructure of kidney stones using synchrotron radiation µCT reveal the mechanism of crystal growth and aggregation in mixed stones. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(3):pe0214003. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214003 .
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214003
Alelign T, Petros B. Kidney Stone Disease: an update on current concepts. Adv Urol. 2018;2018:p3068365. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3068365 .
doi: 10.1155/2018/3068365
Srivastava A, Swain K, Ajith N, Wagh D, Acharya R, Reddy A, & Mete U. Trace element study of kidney stones from subjects belonging to stone belt region of India. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2012;294(3):425–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-011-1553-5 .
Jing Z, GuoZeng W, Ning J, JiaWei Y, Yan G, Fang Y. Analysis of urinary calculi composition by infrared spectroscopy: a prospective study of 625 patients in eastern China. Urol Res. 2010;38(2):111–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-010-0253-x .
doi: 10.1007/s00240-010-0253-x
pubmed: 20157702
Qu R, Han G, Tian Y, Zhao Y. Strontium isotope ratios in kidney stones reveal the environmental implications for humans in Beijing. China Environ Geochem Health. 2023;45(7):4505–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01515-w .
doi: 10.1007/s10653-023-01515-w
pubmed: 36849834
Manzoor MAP, Duwal SR, Mujeeburahiman M, Rekha P-D. Vitamin C inhibits crystallization of struvite from artificial urine in the presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.Int. Braz J Urol. 2018;44. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-5538.IBJU.2017.0656 .
Gulley-Stahl HJ, Haas JA, Schmidt KA, Evan AP, Sommer AJ. Attenuated total internal reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: a quantitative approach for kidney stone analysis. Appl Spectrosc. 2009;63(7):759–66. https://doi.org/10.1366/000370209788701044 .
doi: 10.1366/000370209788701044
pubmed: 19589213
pmcid: 3309560
Qu R, Han G, Zeng J. New tracer for anthropogenic pollution in the atmosphere: stable potassium isotopes in rainwater. J Clean Prod. 2024;435:140574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140574 .
doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140574
Bhatt PA, Paul P. Analysis of urinary stone constituents using powder X-ray diffraction and FT-IR. J Chem Sci. 2008;120(2):267–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12039-008-0032-1 .
Chatterjee P, Chakraborty A, Mukherjee AK. Phase composition and morphological characterization of human kidney stones using IR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray Rietveld analysis.Spectrochim. Acta, Part A.2018; 200: p. 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2018.04.005 .
Tian Y, Han G, Zeng J, Zhang Q, Xu L, Liu K, Xiao C, Ma L, Zhao Y. Preliminary Data on Geochemical Characteristics of Major and Trace Elements in typical biominerals: from the perspective of. Hum Kidney Stones Min. 2021;11(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/min11121396 .
Mirković M, Dosen A, Erić S, Vulić P, Matović B, Rosić A. Phase and microstructural study of urinary stones. Microchem J. 2020;152:104429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2019.104429 .
Tsygankova A, Lundovskaya O, Aleksandrova A, Korolkov I, Filatov E, Pechkovsky E, Yarin G, Safonov D, Vilgelmi I, Glushkova N, Gubanov A. Kidney Stones Anal ICP-OES J Phys : Conf Ser. 2020;1611(1):012055. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1611/1/012055 .
doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1611/1/012055
Mercurio M, Izzo F, Gatta GD, Salzano L, Lotrecchiano G, Saldutto P, Germinario C, Grifa C, Varricchio E, Carafa A, Di Meo MC, Langella A. May a comprehensive mineralogical study of a jackstone calculus and some other human bladder stones unveil health and environmental implications?Environ. Geochem Health. 2022;44(10):3297–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-01083-x .
doi: 10.1007/s10653-021-01083-x
Khaleghi F, Rasekhi R, Mosaferi M. Mineralogy and elemental composition of urinary stones: a preliminary study in northwest of Iran. Period Mineral. 2021;90(1). https://doi.org/10.13133/2239-1002/16764 .
Kuhlmann U, Finkel K, Binswanger U, Siegenthaler W. Calciumstoffwechselstörungen Bei Sarkoidose Inzidenz, Ausmass, Pathogenese und renale Folgeerkrankungen. Klin Wochenschr. 1980;58(1):17–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01477139 .
doi: 10.1007/BF01477139
pubmed: 7374092
Ferraro PM, Bargagli M, Trinchieri A, Gambaro G. Risk of kidney stones: influence of dietary factors, dietary patterns, and vegetarian–vegan Diets.Nutrients.2020; 12(3): p. 779. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030779 .
Atakan IH, Kaplan M, Seren G, Aktoz T, Gül H. Inci. Serum, urinary and stone zinc, iron, magnesium and copper levels in idiopathic calcium oxalate stone patients. Int Urol Nephrol. 2007;39(2):351–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11255-006-9050-4 .
doi: 10.1007/s11255-006-9050-4
pubmed: 17203355
Eren E, Karabulut YY, Eren M, Kadir S. Mineralogy, geochemistry, and micromorphology of human kidney stones (urolithiasis) from Mersin, the southern Turkey.Environ. Geochem Health. 2023;45(7):4761–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01525-8 .
doi: 10.1007/s10653-023-01525-8
Cao X, Harris W, Carbonate, Magnesium Interactive Effect on Calcium Phosphate Precipitation. Environ Sci Technol. 2008;42(2):436–42. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0716709 .
doi: 10.1021/es0716709
pubmed: 18284143
Singh VK, Rai AK, Rai PK, Jindal PK. Cross-sectional study of kidney stones by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. Lasers Med Sci. 2009;24(5):749–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10103-008-0635-2 .
doi: 10.1007/s10103-008-0635-2
pubmed: 19104906
Manzoor MAP, Mujeeburahiman M. Rekha. Electron probe micro-analysis reveals the complexity of mineral deposition mechanisms. Urinary Stones Urolithiasis. 2019;47(2):137–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-018-1052-z .
doi: 10.1007/s00240-018-1052-z
pubmed: 29504067
Wiederhold JG. Metal stable isotope signatures as Tracers in Environmental Geochemistry. Environ Sci Technol. 2015;49(5):2606–24. https://doi.org/10.1021/es504683e .
doi: 10.1021/es504683e
pubmed: 25640608
Kuta J, Smetanová S, Benová D, Kořistková T, Machát J. Urinary stones as a novel matrix for human biomonitoring of toxic and essential elements. Environ Geochem Health. 2016;38(1):133–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9691-2 .
Shannon RD, Prewitt CT. Effective ionic radii in oxides and fluorides. Acta Crystallogr A. 1969;25(5):925–46. https://doi.org/10.1107/S0567740869003220 .
doi: 10.1107/S0567740869003220
Wang L, Chen M, He P, Yu H, Block KA, Xie Z. Composition and spatial distribution of elements and isotopes of a giant human bladder stone and environmental implications.Sci. Total Environ. 2019;650:835–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.028 .
doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.028
Riley JM, Kim H, Averch TD, Kim HJ. Effect of Magnesium on Calcium and Oxalate Ion. Binding J Endourol. 2013;27(12):1487–92. https://doi.org/10.1089/end.2013.0173 .
doi: 10.1089/end.2013.0173
pubmed: 24127630
Blaschko Sarah D, Miller J, Chi T, Flechner L, Fakra S, Kahn A, Kapahi P, Marshall SL. Adv Imaging Techniques J Urol. 2013;189(2):726–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2012.09.098 .
Li C, Paris O, Siegel S, Roschger P, Paschalis EP, Klaushofer K, Fratzl P. Strontium is incorporated into mineral crystals only in newly formed bone during strontium ranelate treatment.J. Bone Min Res. 2010;25(5):968–75. https://doi.org/10.1359/jbmr.091038 .
doi: 10.1359/jbmr.091038
Beging S, Mlynek D, Hataihimakul S, Poghossian A, Baldsiefen G, Busch H, Laube N, Kleinen L, Schöning MJ. Field-effect calcium sensor for the determination of the risk of urinary stone formation. Sens Actuators B. 2010;144(2):374–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2008.12.012 .
Wasana HMS, Aluthpatabendi D, Kularatne WMTD, Wijekoon P, Weerasooriya R, Bandara J. Drinking water quality and chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu): synergic effects of fluoride, cadmium and hardness of water.Environ. Geochem Health. 2016;38(1):157–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9699-7 .
doi: 10.1007/s10653-015-9699-7
Asper R. Epidemiology and socioeconomic aspects of urolithiasis. Urol Res. 1984;12(1):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00256301 .
doi: 10.1007/BF00256301
pubmed: 6372194
Xu S, Li S-L, Yue F, Udeshani C, Chandrajith R. Natural and anthropogenic controls of Groundwater Quality in Sri Lanka: implications for chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu). Water. 2021;13(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/w13192724 .
Sulaiman SK, Enakshee J, Traxer O, Somani BK. Which type of water is recommended for patients with Stone Disease (Hard or Soft Water, tap or Bottled Water): evidence from a systematic review over the last 3 Decades.Curr. Urol Rep. 2020;21(3):6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11934-020-0968-3 .
doi: 10.1007/s11934-020-0968-3
Mirzazadeh M, Nouran MG, Richards KA, Zare M. Effects of drinking Water Quality on urinary parameters in men with and without urinary. Tract Stones Urol. 2012;79(3):501–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2011.10.025 .
doi: 10.1016/j.urology.2011.10.025
pubmed: 22173182
Pineda CA, Rodgers AL, Prozesky VM, Przybylowicz WJ. Elemental mapping analysis of recurrent calcium oxalate human kidney stones. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res Sect B: Beam Interact Mater Atoms. 1995;104(1):351–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-583X(95)00454-8 .
Abdel-Gawad M, Ali-El-Dein B, Elsobky E, Mehta S, Alsaigh N, Knoll T, Kura M, Kamphuis G, Alhayek S, Alkohlany K, Buchholz N, Monga M. Micro-elemental analysis and characterization of major heavy metals and trace elements in the urinary stones collected from patients living in diverse geographical regions.Environ. Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29(45):68941–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20732-x .
doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-20732-x