Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced alcohol relief are driven by imbalance of the striatal dopamine receptors in mice.

Animals Receptors, Dopamine D1 / metabolism Receptors, Dopamine D2 / metabolism Male Mice Corpus Striatum / metabolism Alcoholism / metabolism Anxiety / metabolism Avoidance Learning / drug effects Ethanol / administration & dosage Mice, Inbred C57BL Alcohol Drinking Behavior, Animal / drug effects Disease Models, Animal

Journal

Nature communications
ISSN: 2041-1723
Titre abrégé: Nat Commun
Pays: England
ID NLM: 101528555

Informations de publication

Date de publication:
22 Oct 2024
Historique:
received: 13 05 2023
accepted: 10 10 2024
medline: 23 10 2024
pubmed: 23 10 2024
entrez: 22 10 2024
Statut: epublish

Résumé

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is frequently comorbid with anxiety disorders, yet whether alcohol abuse precedes or follows the expression of anxiety remains unclear. Rodents offer control over the first drink, an advantage when testing the causal link between anxiety and AUD. Here, we utilized a risk-avoidance task to determine anxiety-like behaviors before and after alcohol exposure. We found that alcohol's anxiolytic efficacy varied among inbred mice and mice with high risk-avoidance showed heightened alcohol relief. While dopamine D1 receptors in the striatum are required for alcohol's relief, their levels alone were not correlated with relief. Rather, the ratio between striatal D1 and D2 receptors was a determinant factor for risk-avoidance and alcohol relief. We show that increasing striatal D1 to D2 receptor ratio was sufficient to promote risk-avoidance and enhance alcohol relief, even at initial exposure. Mice with high D1 to D2 receptor ratio were more prone to continue drinking despite adverse effects, a hallmark of AUD. These findings suggest that an anxiety phenotype may be a predisposing factor for AUD.

Identifiants

DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-53414-y PMID: 39438478
pubmed: 39438478
doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-53414-y
pii: 10.1038/s41467-024-53414-y
doi:

Substances chimiques

Receptors, Dopamine D1 0
Receptors, Dopamine D2 0
Ethanol 3K9958V90M

Types de publication

Journal Article

Langues

eng

Sous-ensembles de citation

IM

Pagination

9093

Subventions

Organisme : U.S. Department of Health & Human Services | National Institutes of Health (NIH)
ID : AA000421

Informations de copyright

© 2024. This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the US; foreign copyright protection may apply.

Références

Bloch, S. et al. Assessing negative affect in mice during abstinence from alcohol drinking: limitations and future challenges. Alcohol 100, 41–56 (2022).
pubmed: 35181404 pmcid: 8983487 doi: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2022.02.001
Brady, K. T. & Lydiard, R. B. The association of alcoholism and anxiety. Psychiatr Q 64, 135–149 (1993).
pubmed: 8316598 doi: 10.1007/BF01065866
Castillo-Carniglia, A., Keyes, K. M., Hasin, D. S. & Cerda, M. Psychiatric comorbidities in alcohol use disorder. Lancet Psychiatry 6, 1068–1080 (2019).
pubmed: 31630984 pmcid: 7006178 doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30222-6
Grant, B. F. et al. Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61, 807–816 (2004).
pubmed: 15289279 doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.807
Garey, L. et al. The role of anxiety in smoking onset, severity, and cessation-related outcomes: a review of recent literature. Curr Psychiatry Rep 22, 38 (2020).
pubmed: 32506166 doi: 10.1007/s11920-020-01160-5
Turner, S., Mota, N., Bolton, J. & Sareen, J. Self-medication with alcohol or drugs for mood and anxiety disorders: a narrative review of the epidemiological literature. Depress Anxiety 35, 851–860 (2018).
pubmed: 29999576 pmcid: 6175215 doi: 10.1002/da.22771
Carrigan, M. H. & Randall, C. L. Self-medication in social phobia: a review of the alcohol literature. Addict Behav 28, 269–284 (2003).
pubmed: 12573678 doi: 10.1016/S0306-4603(01)00235-0
Khantzian, E. J. Self-regulation and self-medication factors in alcoholism and the addictions. similarities and differences. Recent Dev Alcohol 8, 255–271 (1990).
pubmed: 2185521
Khantzian, E. J. The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: a reconsideration and recent applications. Harv Rev Psychiatry 4, 231–244 (1997).
pubmed: 9385000 doi: 10.3109/10673229709030550
Heilig, M., Egli, M., Crabbe, J. C. & Becker, H. C. Acute withdrawal, protracted abstinence and negative affect in alcoholism: are they linked? Addict Biol 15, 169–184 (2010).
pubmed: 20148778 doi: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00194.x
Wetterling, T. & Junghanns, K. Psychopathology of alcoholics during withdrawal and early abstinence. Eur Psychiatry 15, 483–488 (2000).
pubmed: 11175926 doi: 10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00519-8
Kushner, M. G., Abrams, K. & Borchardt, C. The relationship between anxiety disorders and alcohol use disorders: a review of major perspectives and findings. Clinical psychology review 20, 149–171 (2000).
pubmed: 10721495 doi: 10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00027-6
Lepola, U. Alcohol and depression in panic disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 89, 33–35 (1994).
doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1994.tb05799.x
Parsons, O. A., Schaeffer, K. W. & Glenn, S. W. Does neuropsychological test performance predict resumption of drinking in posttreatment alcoholics? Addictive Behaviors 15, 297–307 (1990).
pubmed: 2378290 doi: 10.1016/0306-4603(90)90073-7
De Soto, C. B., O’Donnell, W. E. & De Soto, J. L. Long‐term recovery in alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 13, 693–697 (1989).
pubmed: 2688470 doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1989.tb00406.x
Miller, W. R. & Harris, R. J. A simple scale of Gorski’s warning signs for relapse. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 61, 759–765 (2000).
pubmed: 11022817 doi: 10.15288/jsa.2000.61.759
Mossberg, D., Liljeberg, P. & Borg, S. Clinical conditions in alcoholics during long-term abstinence: a descriptive, longitudinal treatment study. Alcohol 2, 551–553 (1985).
pubmed: 4026978 doi: 10.1016/0741-8329(85)90133-8
Flook, E. A. et al. Anxiety during abstinence from alcohol: a systematic review of rodent and human evidence for the anterior insula’s role in the abstinence network. Addict Biol 26, e12861 (2021).
pubmed: 31991531 doi: 10.1111/adb.12861
Gong, M. F. et al. Attenuation of ethanol abstinence-induced anxiety- and depressive-like behavior by the phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor rolipram in rodents. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 234, 3143–3151 (2017).
pubmed: 28748375 doi: 10.1007/s00213-017-4697-3
McCool, B. A. & Chappell, A. M. Chronic intermittent ethanol inhalation increases ethanol self-administration in both C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice. Alcohol 49, 111–120 (2015).
pubmed: 25659650 pmcid: 4339516 doi: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2015.01.003
Rose, J. H. et al. Supersensitive kappa opioid receptors promotes ethanol withdrawal-related behaviors and reduce dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 19, pyv127 (2016).
Allan, C. A. Alcohol problems and anxiety disorders–a critical review. Alcohol Alcohol 30, 145–151 (1995).
pubmed: 7662032
Pang, T. Y., Renoir, T., Du, X., Lawrence, A. J. & Hannan, A. J. Depression-related behaviours displayed by female C57BL/6J mice during abstinence from chronic ethanol consumption are rescued by wheel-running. Eur J Neurosci 37, 1803–1810 (2013).
pubmed: 23551162 doi: 10.1111/ejn.12195
Jimenez, V. A. & Grant, K. A. Studies using macaque monkeys to address excessive alcohol drinking and stress interactions. Neuropharmacology 122, 127–135 (2017).
pubmed: 28347838 pmcid: 5492942 doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.03.027
Egervari, G., Siciliano, C. A., Whiteley, E. L. & Ron, D. Alcohol and the brain: from genes to circuits. Trends Neurosci 44, 1004–1015 (2021).
pubmed: 34702580 pmcid: 8616825 doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2021.09.006
Koob, G. F. Alcohol use disorder treatment: problems and solutions. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 64, 255–275 (2024).
pubmed: 38261428 doi: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-031323-115847
Gilpin, N. W., Yu, W. & Kash, T. L. Forebrain-midbrain circuits and peptides involved in hyperalgesia after chronic alcohol exposure. Alcohol Res 41, 13 (2021).
pubmed: 34729286 pmcid: 8549866 doi: 10.35946/arcr.v41.1.13
Roberto, M., Kirson, D., and Khom, S. The role of the central amygdala in alcohol dependence. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 11, a039339 (2021).
Roland, A. V. et al. Acute and chronic alcohol modulation of extended amygdala calcium dynamics. Alcohol 116, 53–64 (2024).
pubmed: 38423261 doi: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2024.02.004
Cheng, Y. et al. Distinct synaptic strengthening of the striatal direct and indirect pathways drives alcohol consumption. Biol Psychiatry 81, 918–929 (2017).
pubmed: 27470168 doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.05.016
Ehinger, Y. et al. cAMP-Fyn signaling in the dorsomedial striatum direct pathway drives excessive alcohol use. Neuropsychopharmacology 46, 334–342 (2021).
pubmed: 32417851 doi: 10.1038/s41386-020-0712-1
Ma, T., Barbee, B., Wang, X. & Wang, J. Alcohol induces input-specific aberrant synaptic plasticity in the rat dorsomedial striatum. Neuropharmacology 123, 46–54 (2017).
pubmed: 28526611 pmcid: 5531610 doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.05.014
Roltsch Hellard, E. et al. Optogenetic control of alcohol-seeking behavior via the dorsomedial striatal circuit. Neuropharmacology 155, 89–97 (2019).
pubmed: 31121177 pmcid: 6588491 doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.05.022
Xie, X. et al. Linking input- and cell-type-specific synaptic plasticity to the reinforcement of alcohol-seeking behavior. Neuropharmacology 237, 109619 (2023).
pubmed: 37290535 doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109619
Bocarsly, M. E. et al. A mechanism linking two known vulnerability factors for alcohol abuse: heightened alcohol stimulation and low striatal dopamine D2 receptors. Cell Rep 29, 1147–1163.e1145 (2019).
pubmed: 31665630 pmcid: 6880649 doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.09.059
Lezak, K. R., Missig, G. & Carlezon, W. A. Jr Behavioral methods to study anxiety in rodents. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 19, 181–191 (2017).
pubmed: 28867942 pmcid: 5573562 doi: 10.31887/DCNS.2017.19.2/wcarlezon
Boyce-Rustay, J. M., Cameron, H. A. & Holmes, A. Chronic swim stress alters sensitivity to acute behavioral effects of ethanol in mice. Physiol Behav 91, 77–86 (2007).
pubmed: 17363014 doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.01.024
Ghozland, S., Chu, K., Kieffer, B. L. & Roberts, A. J. Lack of stimulant and anxiolytic-like effects of ethanol and accelerated development of ethanol dependence in mu-opioid receptor knockout mice. Neuropharmacology 49, 493–501 (2005).
pubmed: 15961126 doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.04.006
Acevedo, M. B., Nizhnikov, M. E., Molina, J. C. & Pautassi, R. M. Relationship between ethanol-induced activity and anxiolysis in the open field, elevated plus maze, light-dark box, and ethanol intake in adolescent rats. Behav Brain Res 265, 203–215 (2014).
pubmed: 24583190 pmcid: 4010194 doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.02.032
Tucker, L. B. & McCabe, J. T. Behavior of male and female C57BL/6J mice is more consistent with repeated trials in the elevated zero maze than in the elevated plus maze. Front Behav Neurosci 11, 13 (2017).
pubmed: 28184191 pmcid: 5266707 doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00013
Zimmerman, J. L. Cocaine intoxication. Crit Care Clin 28, 517–526 (2012).
pubmed: 22998988 doi: 10.1016/j.ccc.2012.07.003
Zhang, W. T. et al. Spectral fiber photometry derives hemoglobin concentration changes for accurate measurement of fluorescent sensor activity. Cell Rep Methods 2, 100243 (2022).
pubmed: 35880016 pmcid: 9308135 doi: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2022.100243
Munshi, S. et al. Acute ethanol modulates synaptic inhibition in the basolateral amygdala via rapid NLRP3 inflammasome activation and regulates anxiety-like behavior in rats. J Neurosci. 47, 7902–7912 (2023).
doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1744-22.2023
LeBlanc, K. H. et al. Striatopallidal neurons control avoidance behavior in exploratory tasks. Mol Psychiatry 25, 491–505 (2020).
pubmed: 29695836 doi: 10.1038/s41380-018-0051-3
Lemos, J. C. et al. Enhanced GABA transmission drives bradykinesia following loss of dopamine D2 Receptor signaling. Neuron 90, 824–838 (2016).
pubmed: 27196975 pmcid: 4882167 doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.04.040
Burke, D. A., Rotstein, H. G. & Alvarez, V. A. Striatal local circuitry: a new framework for lateral inhibition. Neuron 96, 267–284 (2017).
pubmed: 29024654 pmcid: 5649445 doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.09.019
Dobbs, L. K. et al. D1 receptor hypersensitivity in mice with low striatal D2 receptors facilitates select cocaine behaviors. Neuropsychopharmacology 44, 805–816 (2019).
pubmed: 30504927 doi: 10.1038/s41386-018-0286-3
Burke, D. A. & Alvarez, V. A. Serotonin receptors contribute to dopamine depression of lateral inhibition in the nucleus accumbens. Cell Rep 39, 110795 (2022).
pubmed: 35545050 pmcid: 9171783 doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110795
Morgan, D. et al. Social dominance in monkeys: dopamine D2 receptors and cocaine self-administration. Nat Neurosci 5, 169–174 (2002).
pubmed: 11802171 doi: 10.1038/nn798
Martinez, D. et al. Dopamine type 2/3 receptor availability in the striatum and social status in human volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 67, 275–278 (2010).
pubmed: 19811777 doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.07.037
Volkow, N. D. et al. Effects of alcohol detoxification on dopamine D2 receptors in alcoholics: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res 116, 163–172 (2002).
pubmed: 12477600 doi: 10.1016/S0925-4927(02)00087-2
Jangard, S. et al. Striatal dopamine D2 receptor availability as a predictor of subsequent alcohol use in social drinkers. Addiction 118, 1053–1061 (2023).
pubmed: 36710462 doi: 10.1111/add.16144
Gleich, T. et al. Dopamine D2/3 receptor availability in alcohol use disorder and individuals at high risk: Towards a dimensional approach. Addict Biol 26, e12915 (2021).
pubmed: 32500613 doi: 10.1111/adb.12915
Tupala, E. & Tiihonen, J. Striatal dopamine D1 receptors in type 1 and 2 alcoholics measured with human whole hemisphere autoradiography. Brain Res 1031, 20–29 (2005).
pubmed: 15621009 doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.10.022
Volkow, N. D. et al. Decreases in dopamine receptors but not in dopamine transporters in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20, 1594–1598 (1996).
pubmed: 8986209 doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1996.tb05936.x
Hietala, J. et al. Striatal D2 dopamine receptor binding characteristics in vivo in patients with alcohol dependence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 116, 285–290 (1994).
pubmed: 7892418 doi: 10.1007/BF02245330
da Silva, D. et al. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 limits dopamine D1 receptor signaling in striatum and biases against heavy persistent alcohol drinking. Neuropsychopharmacology 49, 824–836 (2024).
pubmed: 37684522 doi: 10.1038/s41386-023-01731-z
Dobbs, L. K. et al. Dopamine regulation of lateral inhibition between striatal neurons gates the stimulant actions of cocaine. Neuron 90, 1100–1113 (2016).
pubmed: 27181061 pmcid: 4891261 doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2016.04.031
Sherathiya, V. N., Schaid, M. D., Seiler, J. L., Lopez, G. C. & Lerner, T. N. GuPPy, a python toolbox for the analysis of fiber photometry data. Sci Rep 11, 24212 (2021).
pubmed: 34930955 pmcid: 8688475 doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-03626-9

Auteurs

Miriam E Bocarsly (ME)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. bocarsme@njms.rutgers.edu.
Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, Brain Health Institute, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA. bocarsme@njms.rutgers.edu.
ORCID: 0000-0001-9217-032X

Marlisa J Shaw (MJ)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
NIH Academy Enrichment Program, Office of OITE, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.

Emilya Ventriglia (E)

National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA.

Lucy G Anderson (LG)

National Institute on Mental Health, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.

Hannah C Goldbach (HC)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
National Institute on Mental Health, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
ORCID: 0000-0002-5697-4694

Catherine E Teresi (CE)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
Center on Compulsive Behaviors, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.

Marilyn Bravo (M)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.

Roland Bock (R)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
National Institute on Mental Health, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
ORCID: 0000-0002-8654-1080

Patrick Hong (P)

Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, Brain Health Institute, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA.

Han Bin Kwon (HB)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
ORCID: 0009-0002-2997-9390

Imran M Khawaja (IM)

Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, Brain Health Institute, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA.

Rishi Raman (R)

Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, Brain Health Institute, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA.
ORCID: 0009-0000-4476-4414

Erin M Murray (EM)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
ORCID: 0000-0003-4179-7717

Jordi Bonaventura (J)

National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA.
Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
ORCID: 0000-0002-4745-0151

Dennis A Burke (DA)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
ORCID: 0000-0002-7515-4093

Michael Michaelides (M)

National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA.
ORCID: 0000-0003-0398-4917

Veronica A Alvarez (VA)

Laboratory on Neurobiology of Compulsive Behaviors, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. alvarezva@mail.nih.gov.
National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, NIH, Baltimore, MD, USA. alvarezva@mail.nih.gov.
National Institute on Mental Health, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. alvarezva@mail.nih.gov.
Center on Compulsive Behaviors, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA. alvarezva@mail.nih.gov.
ORCID: 0000-0003-2611-8675

Articles similaires

Smoking Cessation and Incident Cardiovascular Disease.

Jun Hwan Cho, Seung Yong Shin, Hoseob Kim et al.
1.00
Humans Male Smoking Cessation Cardiovascular Diseases Female

Evaluation of Low-Value Services Across Major Medicare Advantage Insurers and Traditional Medicare.

Ciara Duggan, Adam L Beckman, Ishani Ganguli et al.
1.00
Humans United States Aged Cross-Sectional Studies Medicare Part C

Effectiveness of Virtual Yoga for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Hallie Tankha, Devyn Gaskins, Amanda Shallcross et al.
1.00
Humans Yoga Low Back Pain Female Male

Meal Timing and Anthropometric and Metabolic Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Hiu Yee Liu, Ashley A Eso, Nathan Cook et al.
1.00
Humans Meals Time Factors Female Adult

Classifications MeSH

questionsmedicales.fr › Eucaryotes › Animaux › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Acides aminés, peptides et protéines › Protéines › Protéines membranaires › Récepteurs de surface cellulaire › Récepteurs aux neuromédiateurs › Récepteurs catécholaminergiques › Récepteurs dopaminergiques › Récepteur dopamine D1 › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Acides aminés, peptides et protéines › Protéines › Protéines membranaires › Récepteurs de surface cellulaire › Récepteurs aux neuromédiateurs › Récepteurs catécholaminergiques › Récepteurs dopaminergiques › Récepteur D2 de la dopamine › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Eucaryotes › Animaux › Chordés › Vertébrés › Mammifères › Eutheria › Rodentia › Muridae › Murinae › Souris › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Système nerveux › Système nerveux central › Encéphale › Prosencéphale › Télencéphale › Cerveau › Noyaux gris centraux › Corps strié › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Troubles mentaux › Troubles liés à une substance › Troubles liés à l'alcool › Alcoolisme › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Comportement et mécanismes comportementaux › Émotions › Anxiété › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Phénomènes psychologiques › Processus mentaux › Pensée (activité mentale) › Prise de décision › Apprentissage par évitement › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Composés chimiques organiques › Alcools › Éthanol › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Eucaryotes › Animaux › Chordés › Vertébrés › Mammifères › Eutheria › Rodentia › Muridae › Murinae › Souris › Lignées consanguines de souris › Souris de lignée C57BL › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Comportement et mécanismes comportementaux › Comportement › Comportement dipsique › Consommation d'alcool › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Comportement et mécanismes comportementaux › Comportement › Comportement animal › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...
questionsmedicales.fr › Techniques d'investigation › Modèles théoriques › Modèles biologiques › Modèles animaux de maladie humaine › Preexisting risk-avoidance and enhanced...