MDMA Induced Cardio-toxicity and Pathological Myocardial Effects: A Systematic Review of Experimental Data and Autopsy Findings.

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), more commonly known as "ecstasy," is a semi-synthetic entactogenic phenylethylamine. In recent years it has gained popularity as a recreational drug whose use has registered an upward trend especially among adolescents and young adults. Despite its unwarranted reputation of being a "safe" drug, the actual scientific data denote that it actually leaves a trail of cardio-toxicity, above and beyond its neurotoxicity and other somatic effects. Both experimental and clinical data, in fact, indicate that ecstasy can alter cardiac function leading to rhythm disturbances, myocardial infarction, and even sudden cardiac death. We reviewed and summarized the bio-medical literature on the cardiovascular response to MDMA both in humans and laboratory animals. The aim was to elucidate the various pathophysiological mechanisms involved, as well as the clinical, autoptic, and experimental findings underlying MDMA-induced cardio-toxicity. Finally, an illustrative case report of ecstasy-induced adolescent death due to acute cardio-toxicity was described so as to highlight some key features.