POP-BFRs in consumer products: Evolution of the efficacy of XRF screening for legislative compliance over a 5-year interval and future trends.

In 2015-16, a study of approximately 500 waste plastic articles showed that portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was up to 95 % effective in screening for compliance with low persistent organic pollutant (POP) concentration limits (LPCLs) on brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in waste. The present study conducted in 2019-20 mirrors that conducted five years prior on a similar number and range of articles, testing the hypothesis that increased use of alternative BFRs as replacements for POP-BFRs will reduce the effectiveness of XRF as a tool for monitoring compliance with LPCLs. In comparing the results, the overall screening efficacy for LPCL compliance reduced from ~95 % to ~88 %, due in part to decreased prevalence of POP-BFRs and potentially increased presence of alternative flame retardants, particularly in goods with shorter lifecycles such as electronics. We additionally examined the impacts of a number of modifications to the XRF measurement protocol on its efficacy, including: using elemental Sb as a qualifier in detecting POP-BFRs in hard plastics; reduced XRF analysis time; and the elimination of background interference using a test stand. The rate at which hard plastics from electronic waste may be analysed by XRF can be substantially improved by reducing analysis time to 5 s, with minimal increase in false exceedances of the LPCL. Monitoring Sb does not appear an effective qualifier for the presence of POP-BFRs, as Sb seems to be used with a range of BFRs. Use of the test stand, while reducing interference, appeared to reduce accuracy when screening low density and thin samples. Despite a seeming increased use of alternative BFRs, screening of waste for compliance with LPCLs using rapid and low-cost screening methods such as portable XRF is still necessary as methods such as GC-MS cannot be scaled up to match the quantities of waste requiring screening.

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Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that there are no known competing financial interests of personal relationships that could have inappropriately biased these works.